Fluid Mechanics CEE 3311
LECTURE 2
PRESSURE
L. Handia
FLUID STATICS
There are no shear stresses in fluids at rest (∆Ft= 0);
hence only normal pressure forces,
perpendicular to the surface (∆Fn≠ 0) are present.
When F= 0, then velocity, U,
is zero. From Newton’s Equation of
Viscosity F du
A dy
0 0
0
A dy
FLUID STATICS
Normal forces produced by static fluids are
often very important:
o water pushing against dam
wall (they tend to overturn
concrete dams)
o burst pressure vessels
o break lock gates on canals
Obviously, to design such facilities, we need to be
able to compute the magnitudes and locations of
normal pressure forces.
FLUID STATICS
Note that normal pressure forces alone can
occur in a moving fluid if the fluid is
moving in bulk without deformation, i.e., as
if it were solid or rigid.
The average pressure intensity p is defined
as the force exerted on a unit area.
FLUID STATICS
If F represents the total normal pressure
force on some finite area A, while dF
represents the force on an infinitesimal area
dA, the pressure is
dF
p
dA
If the pressure is uniform over the total area,
then p = F /A
Pressure
Pressure at a point the same in all directions
No tangential stresses can exist in a fluid at rest, and the only
forces between adjacent surfaces are pressure forces normal
to the surfaces.
Therefore the pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is the
same in every direction.
This can be proved by
reference to Fig.,
showing a very small
wedge-shaped element
of fluid at rest whose
thickness perpendicular
to the plane of the paper is constant and equal to dy.
Pressure
Pressure at a point the same in all directions
Let p be the average pressure in any direction in the plane of
the paper, let α be defined as shown, and let px and pz be the
average pressures in the horizontal and vertical directions
The forces acting on the element of fluid, with the exception of
those in the y direction on the two faces parallel to the plane of
the paper, are shown in the diagram.
For our purpose, α is the angle that
makes P force
forces in the y peperdincular to the
inclined surface)
direction need not
be considered
because they
cancel.
Pressure
Pressure at a point the same in all directions
Since the fluid is at rest, no tangential forces are
involved. As this is a condition of equilibrium,
the sum of the force components on the
element in any direction must be equal to zero.
Pressure
Pressure at a point the same in all directions
Writing such an equation for the components in the x
direction
+ve in x dir, -ve opp x dir
p dl dy cos α - px dy dz = 0
Since dz = dl cos α, it follows from above eqn. that p = px
as shown below:
p dl dy cos α - px dy dz = 0
p dl dy cos α - px dy dl cos α = 0
p = px
Pressure
Pressure at a point the same in all directions
Similarly, summing forces in the z direction gives
pz dx dy - p dl dy sin α – ½ γ dx dy dz = 0
The third term (weight) is of higher order than the
other two terms and so may be neglected. It follows
from this that p = pz as shown below
pz dx dy - p dl dy sin α – ½ γ dx dy dz = 0
pz dx dy - p dl dy sin α – 0= 0
Since dx = dl sin α.
pz dl sin α dy - p dl dy sin α = 0
p = pz
Pressure
Pressure at a point the same in all directions
It can also be proved that p = py by considering a three-
dimensional case.
The results are independent of α; hence the pressure at any
point in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions (i.e., px =
py=pz)
Pressure
Pressure at a point the same in all directions
Pascal’s Law states that the
pressure at a point in a fluid at
rest is the same in all directions
independent of the orientation of
the surface around that point.
Pressure
Variation of pressure in a static fluid
Consider the differential element of static fluid shown in Fig
below.
Since the element is very small, we can assume that the
density of the fluid within the element is constant.
Assume that the pressure at the center of the element is p
and that the dimensions of the element are δx, δy and δz.
Pressure
Variation of pressure in a static fluid
The forces acting on the fluid element in the vertical direction are
the body force, the action of gravity on the mass within the
element, and
the surface forces, transmitted from the surrounding fluid and
acting at right angles against the top, bottom, and sides of the
element.
Pressure
Variation of pressure in a static fluid
Because the fluid is at rest, the element is in equilibrium and the
summation of forces acting on the element in any direction must
be zero.
If forces are summed in the horizontal direction, that is, x or y,
the only forces acting are the pressure forces on the vertical
faces of the element.
To satisfy Fx 0 and Fy 0 , the pressures on the opposite
vertical faces must be equal. Thus
p p
What is δp/δx in
0 for the case of the
words?
x y
fluid at rest
(i.e., there is no change in pressure in the x-direction and also in the
y-direction, the horizontal direction)
Pressure
Variation of pressure in a static fluid
Summing forces in the vertical direction and setting the sum
equal to zero
p z p z
Fz p z 2 xy p z 2 xy xyz 0 Positive because it is in the same
Rate of change of p with respect to z direction multiplied by distance over direction to z direction
Negative because it is opposite
which change occurs i.e., from the centre to the bottom surface= δz/2
direction to z direction
Note that for a force, it is negative and positive whenever it is in
the opposite and same direction, respectively to z direction
, which, p
This results in z
since p is independent of
dp
x and y, can be written as
dz
Pressure
Variation of pressure in a static fluid
dp
dz
z
This is the general expression that relates variation of
pressure in a static fluid to vertical position.
The minus sign indicates that as z gets larger (increasing
elevation), the pressure gets smaller. Or as z gets smaller (going
down), the pressure gets larger (scuba diving suit, oceangate, see next slide)
To evaluate pressure variation in a fluid at rest, one must integrate
the above equation between appropriately chosen limits (see Slide 21).
For incompressible fluids (γ = constant. This is earlier
assumption), above equation can be integrated directly. For
compressible fluids, however, γ must be expressed algebraically
as a function of z or p if one is to determine pressure accurately
as a function of elevation.
Implosion Titan Oceangate
How it Happened | Submersible Submarine
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fhiBnQ0Ar4E
Pressure
Variation of pressure in a static fluid
p z
dp
; dp dz; dp dz
dz p1 z1
Where subscript 1 indicates conditions at a reference elevation.
Integration gives
p p1 ( z z1 )
where p is the pressure at an elevation z. This expression is
generally applicable to liquids, since they are only slightly
compressible. Only where there are large changes in elevation,
as in the ocean, need the compressibility of the liquid be
considered, to arrive at an accurate determination of pressure
variation. For small changes in elevation, equation will give
accurate results
Pressure
Variation of pressure in a static fluid
For the case of a liquid at rest, it is convenient to measure
distances vertically downward from the free liquid surface. If h
is the distance below the free liquid surface and if the pressure
of air and vapour on the surface is arbitrarily taken to be zero,
equation p p1 ( z z1 ) can be written as
z1
h
p h z
As there must always be some pressure on the surface of any
liquid, the total pressure at any depth h is given by the above
equation plus the pressure on the surface.
In many situations this surface pressure may be disregarded.
Pressure
Variation of pressure in a static fluid
From p h , it may be seen that all points in a connected
body of constant density fluid at rest are under the same
pressure if they are at the same depth below the liquid surface
(Pascal’s law).
This indicates that a surface of equal pressure for a liquid at
rest is a horizontal plane.
Strictly speaking, it is a surface everywhere normal to the
direction of gravity and is approximately a spherical surface
concentric with the earth. For practical purposes, a limited
portion of this surface may be considered a plane area.
h
Pressure
Pressure expressed in height of fluid
Imagine an open tank of liquid upon whose surface there is no
pressure, though in reality the minimum pressure upon any
liquid surface is the pressure of its own vapour.
Disregarding this for the moment, by the
previous equation, the pressure at any
depth h is p = γ h.
If γ is assumed constant, there is a definite
relation between p and h. That is, pressure
(force per unit area) is equivalent to a height
h of some fluid of constant specific weight γ.
It is often more convenient to express
pressure in terms of a height of a column of
fluid rather than in pressure per unit area e.g., pressure in the
pipeline is 10m of water.
Pressure
Pressure expressed in height of fluid
Even if the surface of the liquid is under some pressure, it is
necessary only to convert this pressure into an equivalent height
of the fluid in question and add this to the value of h (Fig) to
obtain the total pressure.
Pressure
Pressure expressed in height of fluid
The preceding discussion has been applied to a liquid, but it is
equally possible to use it for a gas or vapour by specifying some
constant specific weight γ for the gas or vapour in question.
Thus pressure p may be expressed in the height of a column of
any fluid by the relation
p
h
When pressure is expressed in meters,
it is commonly referred to as
pressure head e.g., pressure head in
the pipeline is 10m of water.
Pressure
Pressure expressed in height of fluid
It is convenient to express pressures occurring in one fluid in
terms of height of another fluid, e.g., barometric pressure (air) in
millimeters of mercury.
Equation p p1 ( z z1 ) may be expressed as follows:
p p1
z z1 constant
This shows that for an incompressible fluid at rest, at any
point in the fluid the sum of the elevation z and the pressure
head p/ γ is equal to the sum of these two quantities at any other
point. The significance of this statement is that, in a fluid at rest,
with an increase in elevation there is a decrease in pressure
head, and vice versa. This concept is depicted in Fig below.
Pressure
Pressure expressed in height of fluid
p p1
z z1 constant
pA pB
zA z B constant
Pressure
Absolute and gauge pressures
If pressure is measured relative to absolute zero, it is called
absolute pressure
The definition of absolute pressure is the pressure of having
no matter inside a space, or a perfect vacuum. Measurements
taken in absolute pressure use this absolute zero as their
reference point. The best example of an absolute referenced
pressure is the measurement of barometric pressure.
Pressure
Absolute and gauge pressures
When measured relative to atmospheric pressure as a base, it
is called gauge pressure.
This is because practically all pressure gages register zero
when open to the atmosphere, and hence measure the
difference between the pressure of the fluid to which they are
connected and that of the surrounding air.
Pressure
Absolute and gauge pressures
If the pressure is below that of the atmosphere, it is
designated as a vacuum, and its gauge value is the amount by
which it is below that of the atmosphere. What is called a
“high vacuum” is really a low absolute pressure. A perfect
vacuum would correspond to absolute zero pressure.
Pressure
Absolute and gauge pressures
Gauge pressures are positive if they are above that of the
atmosphere and negative if they are vacuum.
It can be seen from the foregoing discussion that the
following relation holds: pabs patm p gauge
where pgauge may be positive or negative (vacuum).
Pressure
Measurement of absolute pressure
BAROMETER
The absolute pressure of the atmosphere is
measured with a barometer.
• Types of barometers. (a) Mercury
barometer. (b) Aneroid barometer.
Pressure
Pressure measurement in a fluid
There are many ways by which pressure in a
fluid may be measured.
1. Bourdon gauge
Pressures or vacuums are commonly
measured by the bourdon gage
A curved tube of elliptical cross section will
change its curvature with changes in
pressure within the tube
Pressure
Pressure measurement
2. Pressure transducer (a device that converts variations in a physical quantity, such as
pressure, into an electrical signal, or vice versa)
3/5/2025 Lecture 2 35
Pressure
Pressure measurement
2. Pressure transducer (a device that converts variations in a physical quantity, such as
pressure, into an electrical signal, or vice versa) Hydrology Course
3/5/2025 Lecture 2 36
Pressure
Pressure measurement
3. Manometers
• Manometers are instruments that use columns of
liquids to measure pressures
• They can be connected to a pipe used to transport a
liquid
3/5/2025 Lecture 2 37
Pressure
Pressure measurement
a. U-tube Manometer (small pressures)
• The datum from which z1 and z2 are measured is located at
any desired position such as through point 1.
• Since p2 = 0 (gauge pressure is selected; if absolute pressure
is desired, we would select p2 = patm) & z2 – z1= h
p1 p2
z1 z2
2
p1 0
0 h datum
1
p1 h Why is this expected? Liquid from the pipe
By measuring h, one computes p1, the pressure in the pipe.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9SQ2FPHCZJk
Pressure
Pressure measurement
b. U-tube Manometer (large pressures)
• Manometer used to measure relatively large pressures
since we can select γ2 to be quite large (e.g., mercury γ2
= 13.6 γwater
• The pressure can be determined by introducing three
p p
points as indicated. This is necessary because z z
1
1
2
2
applies throughout one fluid; γ must be constant. The
value of γ changes abruptly at point 2; hence we write
p1 p2 for γ1
z1 z2
1 1
p2 p3
z2 z3
2 2 for γ2
Pressure
Pressure measurement
b. U-tube Manometer (large pressures)
p1 p2
z1 z2 1
1 1
p2 p3
z2 z3 2
2 2
where γ1 and γ2 are for liquids 1 and 2, respectively.
• Equation 1 becomes
p2
p1 1 z2 z1 p2 1 z2 z1 3
1
• Setting p3 = 0 (gauge pressure is used), Equation 2 yields
p
p2 2 3 z3 z2 2 0 z3 z2 2 z3 z2 4
2
Should pass
through point 1 at
Pressure the centre of the
pipe
Pressure measurement
b. U-tube Manometer (large pressures)
p2
p1 1 z2 z1 p2 1 z2 z1
1
3
p3
p2 2 z3 z2 2 0 z3 z2 2 z3 z2 4
2
• Putting Eqn 4 into Eqn 3 results in (z1-z2=h, z3-z2=H see Fig)
p1 2 ( z3 z2 ) 1 ( z2 z1 ) 1h 2 H
• In the analysis above we recognise that the pressure at point 2' is equal to the
pressure at point 2, since points 2 and 2' are at the same elevation in the same
fluid above a datum passing through the horizontal bottom of the manometer.
Pressure
Pressure measurement
b. U-tube Manometer (large pressures)
p1 1 ( z2 z1 ) 2 ( z3 z2 ) 1h 2 H
• Interpret the manometer by starting at the left
water pipe, add pressure when the elevation
decreases, and subtract pressure when the
elevation increases until the end is encountered.
p1 1 ( z2 z1 ) 2 ( z3 z2 ) 1h 2 H p1 1h 2 H p3
p1 1h 2 H p3 h = - ( z2 - z1 )= z1 – z2
Pressure
Pressure measurement
• c. Micromanometer (very small pressure
changes)
Example
Pressure
Pressure measurement
3/5/2025 Lecture 2 45
Pressure
Pressure measurement
• An alternative method of interpreting the
manometer is to start at the left water pipe, add
pressure when the elevation decreases, and
subtract pressure when the elevation increases
until the pipe at the right is encountered (From
p1 1 ( z2 z1 ) 2 ( z3 z2 ) 1h 2 H p1 1h 2 H p3 )
p1 1h 2 H p3
Pressure
Pressure measurement
p1 1 ( z1 z2 ) 2 ( z3 z2 ) 3 ( z4 z3 ) 4 ( z4 z5 ) p5
• Note that by neglecting the weight of the air (, the pressure at point 3 is equal to that
at point 4 i.e., 3 ( z4 z3 ) 0 (if you want, you can include it)
p1 9810 0.2 (1.6 9810) (0.2 0.02) (0.9 9810) 0.13 p5
p1 p5 343Pa » This yields the same answer
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=gxrkLkJybnA
• ..\..\illustration videos\Manometer
Explained _ Working Principle.mp4
