UNIT 2

THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND THE

EARTH

At the end of the unit, the student must have:

1. identified what comprised the solar system;

2. discussed the characteristics of the sun, planets, and other heavenly
bodies;
3. identified the location of earth in space;
4. described the size, structure, and shape of the earth; and
5. discussed the differences between revolution and rotation.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The solar system consists of the Sun, its eight orbiting planets, and their
moons as well as asteroids, comets, and meteoroids. The planets are, in order
from the Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune. Pluto, known for a long time as the ninth planet, is now called a dwarf
planet. In addition to the planets and their moons, the solar system includes
asteroids, comets, and all the other bits of rock, dust, and ice that circle the Sun.

Physical Geography 1
The Sun
The Sun is a typical star of intermediate
size and luminosity. Sunlight and other
radiation are produced by the conversion of
hydrogen into helium in the Sun’s hot, dense
interior. The Sun is the heart of the solar
system. It is a star—a huge ball of burning
gases. Its tremendous heat and light make
life on Earth possible. The Sun is so big that a
million Earths could fit inside it. The Sun is a
medium-sized self-luminous gaseous mass
that contains 99.9 percent of all the matter in
the solar system. It is of average brightness
for a star. All the planets, including the Earth,
revolve around the Sun.

The Planets in the Solar System

A. The Inner/Terrestrial Planets

The inner planets are the four planets closest to the Sun: Mercury, Venus,
Earth, and Mars. They all have hard, rocky surfaces. Mercury and Venus get hot
enough to melt lead, while Mars is colder than Antarctica. Only Earth is known to
have life and liquid water on its surface.
Mercury

Mercury is the planet nearest the Sun. From

Mercury’s hot, dry surface, the Sun appears twice
as large as it does from Earth. Mercury’s surface is
covered with craters from the bombardment of
meteors and comets. Mountain ridges have
resulted from shock waves and the slow cooling of
the planet. Mercury seems to be made mostly of
iron, and much of its outer rocky material is
believed to have been blasted away by an
asteroid.

Venus

The planet Venus is second in order from

the Sun. Although it is twice the distance from
the Sun as Mercury, it is the hottest planet in
the solar system. A thick, cloudy atmosphere of
carbon dioxide traps the Sun’s heat and bathes
the planet’s surface in a drizzle of sulfuric acid
caused by volcanic eruptions. The surface of
Venus consists of low-lying plains and highland
regions shaped by volcanoes and lava flows. It
is believed that volcanoes continue to erupt on
Venus, as sulfur dioxide levels vary and
unusually hot regions have been recorded.

Physical Geography 2
 Mars

The planet Mars is fourth in order from the

Sun. It is half the size of Earth, its day is almost
exactly the same length as Earth’s, and, like
Earth, it tilts on an axis, which results in
seasons. These changing seasons probably give
the planet its 161 km/h (100 mph) winds, which
cause its raging dust storms. Mars has two
moons, which are possibly captured asteroids.

B. The Outer/Jovian Planets

Beyond the asteroid belt lie the outer planets. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune are giant planets made mostly of gas. They have no solid surface.
Jupiter is the biggest planet in the solar system. More than a thousand Earths
could fit inside it.

Jupiter

The fifth planet in order from the Sun, Jupiter is

the solar system’s largest planet. It is more than
twice the size of all the other planets combined.
Surrounded by its 63 moons, Jupiter resembles a
miniature solar system. Like a star, it is made mostly
of gases and generates its own heat. Jupiter’s
atmosphere is made up of bands of moving gases.
The dominant Great Red Spot, three times the
diameter of the Earth, is a huge storm that has
existed at least as long as telescopes have been
viewing Jupiter.

Saturn

The planet Saturn is sixth in order

from the Sun. It is surrounded by
thousands of rings made up of small
particles of ice and rock. These may
be debris from a former moon that
was shattered in a collision with
another celestial body. Saturn has at
least 60 moons, and some of them
show evidence of such collisions.
Saturn’s density is so low that this
gigantic planet could float on water, a
clue that it consists mostly of
hydrogen and helium gases. Saturn
generates its own heat, probably

Physical Geography 3
because gases are separating in its interior, similar to the action between oil and
vinegar. This separation enables gases to change some of their movement or
kinetic energy into heat energy.

Uranus

The planet Uranus is seventh

in order from the Sun. Its most
characteristic feature is that it
spins on its side, with one pole
facing the Sun. One theory
suggests that Uranus was struck
by a large object and knocked
onto its side. The intruder was
pulverized, and its debris formed
clouds of water vapor and rocky
debris around Uranus. This debris
later settled to form the many
moons and thin, dark rings that
surround the planet. Like Neptune, most of Uranus is a dirty ocean of water
laced with ammonia and methane and underlain by a rocky core. A hydrogen
and helium atmosphere holds a trace of methane that gives the planet its blue-
green color.

Neptune

The planet Neptune is eighth in order

from the Sun. With huge storms that blow at
up to ten times the force of a hurricane,
almost enough to break the sound barrier,
Neptune is the solar system’s windiest
planet. One of its great mysteries is what
drives these ferocious winds. Four times the
size of Earth and slightly smaller than
Uranus, Neptune probably has no definite
boundaries between its layers. It has a small
core of molten rock surrounded by an ocean
mixed with rocky material and mud. The top
of the ocean gradually grades into an
atmosphere composed of hydrogen and
helium. A little methane gives Neptune its blue-green color.

Other Heavenly Bodies

A. Asteroids

The asteroids are small,

rocky bodies that move in
orbits primarily between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

Physical Geography 4
Some asteroids are perturbed, or pulled by forces other than their attraction to
the Sun, into eccentric orbits that can bring them closer to the Sun.

If the orbits of such bodies intersect that of Earth, they are called
meteoroids. When they appear in the night sky as streaks of light, they are
known as meteors, and recovered fragments are termed meteorites. Laboratory
studies of meteorites have revealed much information about primitive conditions
in our solar system. The surfaces of Mercury, Mars, and several satellites of the
planets (including Earth’s moon) show the effects of an intense bombardment by
asteroidal and cometary objects early in the history of the solar system.

B. Comets

Comets are big

chunks of ice and dust
that go around the Sun.
When comets come
close to the Sun, they
develop long, bright
tails. Sometimes we can
see them from Earth. It
is a
small icy body in space
that sheds gas and dust. Like rocky asteroids, icy comets are ancient objects left
over from the formation of the solar system about 4.6 billion years ago. Some
comets can be seen from Earth with the unaided eye.

Comets typically have highly elliptical (oval-shaped), off-center orbits that

swing near the Sun. When a comet is heated by the Sun, some of the ice on the
comet’s surface turns into gas directly without melting. The gas and dust freed
from the ice can create a cloud (coma) around the body (nucleus) of the comet.
More gas and dust erupt from cracks in the comet’s dark crust. High-energy
charged particles emitted by the Sun, called the solar wind, can carry the gas
and dust away from the comet as a long tail that streams into space. Gas in the
tail becomes ionized and glows as bluish plasma, while dust in the tail is lit by
sunlight and looks yellowish. This distinctive visible tail is the origin of the word
comet, which comes from Greek words meaning “long-haired star.”

THE PLANET EARTH

The planet Earth is third in order from

the Sun. It is a huge ball of rock that travels
in space around the Sun. It also slowly spins
around. At any one moment, only half of
Earth faces the Sun. The side facing the Sun
has day, and the other side has night. It
takes 24 hours for Earth to spin around once.
It takes Earth one year, or about 365 days, to
go once around the Sun. Earth’s orbit—the
path it follows around the Sun—is close to
the shape of a circle.

Physical Geography 5
 If you traveled into space and looked down at Earth, what would you see?
Water, land, and clouds. Water covers almost three-fourths of the planet. The
rest is covered by land. Clouds are part of the atmosphere, a thin blanket of air
surrounding Earth. The atmosphere helps keep Earth warm, gives us oxygen to
breathe, and blocks harmful rays from the Sun.

If you could cut Earth open, you would see three main layers. The crust is
the thin outer layer. It includes all land and the ocean floors. Below the crust is
the mantle, a thick layer of hot rock. Some of the mantle is so hot that the rock
is soft and gooey. The center of Earth is called the core. It is the hottest part of
the planet. The outer part of the core is liquid metal. The inner core is a ball of
solid metal.

Because of its distance from the Sun, the presence of a protective

atmosphere, and a correct mixture of organic chemicals, Earth is the only planet
in our solar system that can sustain life. It is also the only planet on which the
same substance (such as water) can exist in gaseous, liquid, and solid forms.
Earth is an extremely dynamic, active planet whose crust is constantly recycling
itself by the constant motion of its plates.

The Earth is not a perfect sphere. It is a unique shape called a geoid, which
means “Earth shaped”. The Earth spins faster at the Equator than the Poles,
because the Equator is farther from the Earth’s spinning axis. The extra speed of
the Earth at the Equator flings it out in a bulge, while it is flattened at the Poles.
The Equatorial bulge was predicted in 1687 by Isaac Newton, which was also
confirmed 70 years after Newton--by French Surveys in Peru by Charles de La
Condamine, an in Lapland by Pierre de Maupertius. The Earth’s diameter at the
Equator is 12,758 km. This is larger--by 43 km--than the vertical diameter from
North Pole to South Pole. The official measurement of the Earth’s radius at the
Equator is 6,376,136 m, plus or minus 1 m.

The Earth’s Layers

I. CORE
- Inner part of the earth which is found 1,800 mi or 2,900 km below
the earth’s surface
- A dense ball of the elements iron and nickel
- It is so hot that radiates natural heat to the upper layers which create heat
currents known as convection currents
- It is divided into two layers:
o Inner Core
 It is located 3200-3960 mi or 5150-6370 km below the earth’s
surface and it is the center of the earth
 It contains mainly of iron, nickel and some lighter elements like
sulphur, carbon, oxygen, silicon, and potassium
 It contains 1.7% of the earth’s mass and
 Pressures are so great in this layer that it cannot melt and it remains
solid, even though temperatures there reach 6700 degrees
Fahrenheit or 3700 degrees Celsius
o Outer Core
 It is located at 1800-3200 mi or 2890-5150 km below the earth’s
surface

Physical Geography 6
  It contains 30.8% of the earth’s mass
 It is liquid that consists of iron, nickel and about 10% sulphur and
oxygen
 It is so hot that the metal is always molten
 It spins around the inner core that causes earth’s magnetism
everytime it rotates
 The temperature is about 7200-9032 degrees Fahrenheit or 4000-
5000 degrees Celsius
II.MANTLE
- The layer above the core that begins about 6 mi or 10 km below the oceanic
crust and about 19 mi or 30 km below the continental crust
- It is about 1800 mi or 2900 km thick and makes up nearly 80 percent of the
earth’s total volume
- It makes up the bulk of the earth’s interior and it is composed of dense rocks
largely made up of the mineral olivine
- Convection currents are present because the earth is very hot inside and it
cools down as it comes closer to the surface of the earth
- The time when currents come at a weaker part of the crust, magma comes
out above the earth’s surface
- The convection current along the bottom of the crust causes the moving of
the tectonic plates known as plate tectonics and the bumping of the two
plates cause earthquakes
- It is divided into:
o Inner/Lower Mantle
 It can be found between 190-1800 mi or 300-2890 km below the
earth’s surface
 The average temperature is 5400 degrees Fahrenheit or 3000
degrees Celsius, nevertheless the rock is solid because of the high
pressures
 It contains 49% of the earth’s mass
 The biggest part probably consists of sulphides and oxides of silicon
and magnesium
o Outer/Upper Mantle
 It is a lot thinner than the inner mantle and it can be found between
7-190 mi or 10-300 km below the earth’s surface
 It contains 15% of the earth’s mass
 It can be divided into two different layers- the lower layer is tough
liquid rock and probably consists of silicates of iron and magnesium
while the upper layer consists of the same material but it is stiffer
because of its lower temperature
 It consists of molten rock materials referred to as the asthenosphere
which allows the crustal plates lying on it to move in either a vertical
or horizontal manner because of its gel-like characteristics.

III. CRUST
- It is the rocky outermost layer of the lithosphere and composed of two kinds
the SIAL (Silicon and Aluminum) and SIMA (silicon and magnesium)
- It lies above the mantle and it is the earth’s hard outer shell, the surface on
which we are living and it is much thinner
- It floats upon the softer, denser mantle
- It is made up of solid materials that are not everywhere the same
- Mohorovicic discontinuity (moho) is the boundary between the crust and the
mantle beneath
- It is divided into:

Physical Geography 7
 o Continental Crust
 It is the thickest below the continents, with an average of about 20-
25 miles or 30-40 kilometers and with a maximum of 45 miles or 70
kilometers
 It is the upper layer of the earth’s crust made up of silicon and
aluminum (SIAL)
 It is older than the oceanic crust, some rocks are 3.8 billion years
oldit is of crystalline ‘basement’
 It mainly consists of igneous rocks and it is divided into two layers:
upper part mainly consists of granite rocks; lower parts consists of
basalt and diorite
 It is thicker than the oceanic crust at about 19 miles or 30 kilometers
thick and it is mainly made up of light material, like granite
 It is created in the volcanic arcs above subduction zones and molten
rocks from the subducted plates oozes to the surface over a period
of a few hundred thousand years
o Oceanic Crust
 This crust is below the oceans and it is 4-7 miles or 6-11 kilometers
thick
 The rocks are very young as compared to the continental crust and
not older than 200 million years old
 For the greater part, the materials consist of tholeitic basalt formed
out of very liquid lava, which cools off quickly.
 It is the submerged or lower layer of the lithosphere made up of
silicon and magnesium (SIMA)

http://exampariksha.com/interior-earth-geography-study-material-notes/

Physical Geography 8
http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2016/01/what-are-earth-layers-made-of.html
THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH

The two major motions of the Earth are rotation and revolution. These
movements influence the way people adapt to their environment and how they
go about with their daily activities.

Rotation

https://www.google.com.ph/url?
sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwi1jLrT8JPYAhWEi5QKHT5ODR8QjRwIBw&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.quora.com%2FDoes-the-sun-has-two-different-rotation-of-gravity&psig=AOvVaw1hHLQ1Y1i3cb_F_8ducRs3&ust=1513697468124585

The Earth spins on an imaginary line called axis from a west to east
direction. This movement of the Earth is called rotation. The Earth’s axis runs
through the center of the Earth from the North Pole to the South Pole. The
spinning motion of the Earth causes day and night. The Earth spins on its axis
once every 24 hours or one day. The counterclockwise direction of the
Earth’s rotation makes the Sun seems to rise in the east and set in the west.

Revolution

Physical Geography 9
https://www.google.com.ph/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjy0sfv8JPYAhVIFZQKHR-
tAUEQjRwIBw&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.quora.com%2FHow-do-we-get-to-know-earth-has-completed-one-revolution-around-the-
sun&psig=AOvVaw1HrIpkAXL8WwJHIFRafkC1&ust=1513697525487245

https://www.google.com.ph/url?
sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwi80M3u75PYAhVLG5QKHQtDD0sQjRwIBw&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.slideshare.net%2FTreborDadinirt%2Fperihelion-and-aphelion&psig=AOvVaw0VTwi9MKWueiZvTI7IApXT&ust=1513697212162794

The Earth is a member of the solar system, a system of planets, asteroids,

meteoroids, comets, and stellar dust and gases that orbit the sun. As the Earth
rotates on its axis, it also moves or revolves around the Sun in an elliptical
orbit. This movement of the Earth is called revolution. The Earth revolves
around the Sun in an eastward direction. One complete revolution last for 365
¼ days or equivalent to one year. The Earth orbits around the Sun at a speed of
about 29.8 kilometers per second and the distance varies at different points in
its path. The Earth is nearest to the Sun at perihelion on January 3 or
January 4 with a distance of approximately 147.2 million kilometers
(91,500,000 miles). The Earth is farthest from the Sun at aphelion on July 3
or 4 at approximately 152.1 million kilometers (94,000,000 miles). Thus, the
average distance of the Earth from the Sun is about 150 million kilometers
(93,000,000 miles).

III. THE EARTH’S TILTED AXIS AND SEASONAL CHANGES

Physical Geography 10
https://www.google.com.ph/url?
sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwj90efz7ZPYAhWCJJQKHcO4ChEQjRwIBw&url=http%3A%2F
%2Furbanastronomer.blogspot.com%2F2011%2F09%2Fautumnal-equinox-what-do-you-see.html&psig=AOvVaw1hipx-
k9BkqlDqndIk90dI&ust=1513696593875072

https://www.google.com.ph/url?
sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjNkaTs7JPYAhVGn5QKHZgqDd0QjRwIBw&url=http%3A%2F
%2Ffowlerearthscience.weebly.com%2Fearth-science-2-daily-warm-up%2Fwarm-up-what-direction-does-the-earth-
rotate&psig=AOvVaw0NeT_PGeJ2G2390eri4VzQ&ust=1513696449175474

https://www.google.com.ph/url?
sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwi6iMOj7JPYAhUBI5QKHWwmCwQQjRwIBw&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FAxial_tilt&psig=AOvVaw2B8LtAcU6tgEqaj9S6K9Cx&ust=1513696216334528

Physical Geography 11
https://www.google.com.ph/url?
sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjVgpDV7pPYAhXMq5QKHQWMBRgQjRwIBw&url=https%3A%2F
%2Faesnotes.wordpress.com%2F2013%2F07%2F10%2Fsolstices-and-equinoxes
%2F&psig=AOvVaw1Fl2hBRrD4NNa5BRQQthxE&ust=1513696886028074
The Earth’s axis is an imaginary line that goes through the center of the
Earth from North Pole to the South Pole. As the Earth spins on its axis it does not
spin straight up and down. The tilt of the Earth’s axis does not change as the
Earth revolves around the sun. As the earth rotates and revolves around the Sun
its axis tilts at an average of 23 ½ degrees from the vertical line. This tilt is
maintained throughout its motion causing variations in seasons and in the
amount of solar radiation received by the Earth. It also causes the amount of
daylight and darkness to vary during the year.

During summer solstice, when the North Pole is directly tilted toward the
Sun, the Earth will experience the longest period of daylight and the shortest
period of darkness in the Northern Hemisphere. During winter solstice when
the North Pole is tilted away from the Sun, the Earth will experience the shortest
day and longest night of the year. During equinoxes the days and nights are
equal all over the Earth. At around March 21 or 22 the Sun’s rays are directly
overhead at noon along the Equator. This date is the spring/vernal equinox in
the Northern Hemisphere. Equinox means equal day and night. On this day,
every place on the Earth’s surface will experience 12 hours of daylight and 12
hours of darkness. In the Southern Hemisphere it is fall/autumnal equinox. the
daylight hours increase and nighttime hours decrease in the Northern
Hemisphere as the Earth continues to move in its orbital path and the it turns
more and more toward the Sun.

At around June 21 or 22, summer solstice occurs. The word solstice

means “Sun stops.” It tells the time when the Sun stops its journey to the
north as it rises everyday. The Sun’s rays are directly overhead at noon at 23 ½
degrees north of the Equator along the Tropic of Cancer. The Northern
Hemisphere experiences the longest daylight period and the shortest period of
darkness on this day. This explains why the area north of the Arctic Circle at 66
½ degrees North, experiences 24 hours of daylight or the Sun did not set that

Physical Geography 12
night. This area, therefore, is referred to as the Land of the Midnight Sun as
in the case of Norway in Scandinavia.

The fall/autumnal equinox occurs on September 22 or 23 in the

Northern Hemisphere. The Sun’s rays strike directly overhead at noon along the
Equator just like what happens during the vernal equinox. December 21 or 22 is
the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere. At this time, the Sun’s rays are
directly overhead at noon at 23 ½ degrees south of the Equator along the Tropic
of Capricorn. The Northern Hemisphere will experience its shortest daylight
period and the longest nighttime period during this day.

Seasonal changes are caused by the tilting of the Earth and its revolution
around the Sun. these bring about the variations in the lengths of day and night.
The longest days and shortest nights occur during summer. We expect warmer
weather during this period due to longer exposure to the Sun’s rays. Shorter
days are experienced during winter period. Consequently, the weather is cooler.

Physical Geography 13