Notes

Networks Topic/SLR:

Network Two or more computers connected together. Devices are capable

of sharing resources.

Example: an email sent from one person to the other

● Peripherals such as printers can be shared

Benefits of
networks
● internet connection is enabled

● Being able to use the World Wide Web (WWW)

● A user can logon to their resources from another network.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Types of networks
Found within a small geographic area (e.g:
schools ,hospitals)

Larger LANs will include one or more servers

Characteristics of a LAN:

● LANs works with the Computer’s NETWORK

 INTERFERENCE CARDS (NIC’s) including wireless
NIC’s. Each NIC has a unique MAC address.

● Cables (or wireless devices) often shared

peripherals

For the devices to connect to the network, you’ll need…

Switch

● Switch:

Connects devices on a LAN

Reads MAC addresses to send data to the

correct device

Reduced data collisions makes the network

faster and safer.

Each device is connected to a separate port.

Modern use: Backbone of networks in homes, schools,

offices.
 ● Network interference card (NIC)

NICs Each NIC has a unique MAC address — a

permanent ID
assigned to the card.

This MAC address is used by the switch to

identify and send
data to the right device.

A NIC sends and receives data packets over the

network.

● Wireless access point (WAP)

A device that lets wireless devices connect to a

wired
network.

Acts like a Wi-Fi hotspot inside a building.

Connects to a switch or router using a network

cable.

Wide area network (WAN)

 consists of computers that are connected but are
geographically separated
Wide area network

Example: internet

A network that covers a large geographical

area.

Connects multiple LANs (Local Area Networks)

together.

Uses external communication systems like (it

relies on):
these are owned by telecom companies

● telephone lines

● fibre optics

● 4G/5G

● leased lines

Millions of devices are connected with an

Internet Service Provider (ISP)
Internet Protocols the internet uses:

● TCP

● IP address

Internet ≠ World wide web

internet: giant road system that connects devices

World wide web

World wide web: shops and restaurants on the streets

World wide web:

● Made of websites and web pages

● A service that runs on the internet

● uses http/https to load pages

● Splits the data to be transmitted into packets (groups of

bits)
 ● Takes place at the transport layer of the TCP/IP model
Packet switching
● Different packets can be sent at different times

Video Title: Topic/SLR:

AI GENERATED!
Questions Notes
 Key Points

What is a network?
Network
A network is a collection of computers and other hardware
interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of
resources and information. These connections can be wired (like
Ethernet cables) or wireless (such as Wi-Fi).

Examples:

● Sending an email from a laptop to a coworker in another

country using the Internet

● Streaming a video from YouTube, where data is

transmitted from a web server to a user's device

● Turning on smart lights using a mobile app over Wi-Fi or

Zigbee protocol

Benefits of networks

Benefits of ● Share Peripherals: Devices like printers and scanners can be

networks used by multiple users, reducing costs

● Centralized backups: Important files are stored in one

location and backed up regularly

● User mobility: Users can access their files and settings from
any connected device on the network

● Simplifies software updates: Software patches and antivirus

updates can be deployed to all connected devices from a
server

● Enables remote smart-home control: Users can adjust

thermostats, monitor security, and control lighting from
anywhere

Types of Networks

LAN (Local Area Network)

 ● Used in confined areas like schools, homes, and offices
LAN
● Can be wired, wireless, or a mix

● Typically includes routers, switches, access points

NICs (Network Interface Cards) allow devices to connect to the

network, each with a unique MAC address

● NICs can be wireless or wired and are often built into the
motherboard
NICs
WAN (Wide Area Network)

● Spans large geographical areas using telecom links

● Connects multiple LANs together

WAN
● Internet is the most common example of a WAN

● A corporation with offices in different cities connected via

WAN for secure file access and communications

Network Hardware: Switch, Router, WAP, NIC, Cable

Switch

● Operates in LANs, directing data to the correct device

● Improves efficiency by minimizing data traffic

Hardware
Wireless Access Point (WAP)

● Connects wireless devices to a wired network

● Often integrated with routers in home setups

Router

● Connects different networks together (e.g., LAN to Internet)

● Assigns local IP addresses to devices

 Example:

● A home router combines a switch, WAP, and modem to

manage home internet access

Packet Switching & DNS

Packet Switching

● Splits messages into smaller units called packets

● Each packet may take a different path to the destination

● Assembled in order upon arrival using sequence numbers

Packet switching

Example:

● Watching a Netflix movie: packets stream in varied paths

and are reassembled

DNS (Domain Name System)

● Translates website names into IP addresses

● Enables browsers to locate and connect to servers

Example:

● Entering "www.bbc.co.uk" returns the IP address like

212.58.246.79, allowing access to the site

Network Topologies
 Star Topology

● Devices connect to a central switch/hub

● Central management and fewer collisions

DNS

Example:

● Schools or businesses where each computer connects to a

main switch

Bus Topology

● Single cable backbone, terminators at ends

● Cheaper but suffers from collision issues

Example:

● Early computer labs, small networks in vehicles

Mesh Topology

● Devices connect directly to many other devices

● High fault tolerance and reliability

Network Topologies
Example:
Star topology
● IoT in cities like Coventry using smart traffic lights and
cameras

Transmission Media & Performance

Wired (Copper, Fibre)

● Copper:
● Cheap,
Bus topology ● easy,
● short distances
 ● Fibre:
● Expensive
● high-speed,
● long distance,
● immune to interference

Wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, RFID, NFC)

● Zigbee: Smart homes, low power, mesh

Mesh Topology ● RFID/NFC: Short-range ID, security access, payments

● Wi-Fi: Laptop streaming video

● Bluetooth: Headset connected to phone

● RFID: Inventory tracking in warehouses

● NFC: Contactless payments

Performance Factors

● Bandwidth

● Interference (walls, devices)

Transmission Media
& Performance ● Distance from access points

● Network congestion

Protocols & TCP/IP Model

TCP, IP, HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, SMTP, IMAP, POP3

● TCP: Ensures packets arrive correctly and in order

● IP: Delivers packets to the right address

● HTTP/HTTPS: Access websites (HTTPS is encrypted)

Wireless
● SMTP: Sends email

● IMAP/POP3: Retrieves email from servers

 Example:

● Using Outlook: SMTP sends the message, IMAP syncs the

inbox

● Visiting a secure site: HTTPS ensures encryption

Network Security

● Protects confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data

performance factors
Common Threats

● Malware, phishing, eavesdropping, DoS attacks

Defensive Measures:

Firewalls

Encryption

Access Controls
Protocols
Antivirus software

Physical security

Examples:

● School blocks YouTube using a firewall

● HTTPS encrypts credit card info during online purchase

1. Algorithms: Step-by-step instructions to solve problems

An algorithm is a set of step-by-step instructions used to solve

problems. It must be unambiguous, complete, accurate,

consistent, and efficient.

 Example: Making toast.

Decomposition :
Network Security

Breaking a problem into smaller parts.

Example: Cleaning teeth broken into mini-steps.

Abstraction:
Defensive Measures
Focus on necessary info, ignore extra details.

Example: Tube maps simplify routes by removing geographic

scale.

Pattern Recognition: Spotting Repeating elements to simplify

solutions.

Example:Sorting shopping list by type of item.

2. Understanding Algorithms
Algorithms

Input-Process-Output (IPO):

Data goes in > Processing > Result comes out.

Example: Thermostat – Input: temp, Output: heater on/off.

Describing Algorithms:
Decomposition
 Identify Purpose, inputs, outputs, and processes.

Example: Countdown program or username/password login

loop.

Abstraction

Purpose of Algorithms: Understand what the algorithm achieves.

Example:Guess the random number game.

pattern Recognition
3. Searching Algorithms

Linear Search:

Check items one-by-one. Simple but slow with many items.

Understanding
algorithms

Binary Search:

Split list in half each time (needs sorted list). Faster than linear for

large data.

Example:Guessing a number between 1 and 100 using

higher/lower hints.
describing
algorithms
 4. Sorting Algorithm

Bubble Sort: Repeatedly swap adjacent items if in wrong order.

Simple but slow.

Purpose of Merge Sort:

algorithms
Divide the list into halves, sort each half, then merge. More

efficient with large data.

Linear Search

5. Truth Tables and Logic

Truth Tables: Show all possible outcomes of logic statements. Use

Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT).

Binary search
Logical Operators:

AND: true only if both parts are true.

OR: true if at least one part is true.

NOT: reverses truth value.

Precedence Rules:
Sorting Algorithm
 Order of operations in logic.

Example:NOT happens before AND, AND before OR.

6. Trace Tables

Merge sort Track variable values through steps in an algorithm. Help Find

bugs or understand flow.

Example:Calculating powers or looping through arrays.

Truth tables and

Logic

7. Flowcharts

Visual Representation of algorithms. Use standardized shapes:

Oval: Start/End
Precedence Rules
Rectangle: Process
 Diamond: Decision

Parallelogram: Input/Output

Trace tables

Examples: Password check loop, countdown, central heating

system.

8. Evaluating Efficiency
Flowcharts
Compare time and space used by algorithms.

Example: Multiple ways to get to a destination on Tube map, but

some faster.
1. Variables

Variables store data that can change. In Python, declare by

assigning a value.

Example: name = "Alice" stores a string. score = 10

stores an integer.

2. Constants

Constants store fixed values. Use uppercase to show they don't

change.

Example: **PI = 3.14159**, **DAYS_IN_WEEK = 7**

 3. Assignment

Variables

Use = to assign or reassign values to variables.

Example: **counter = counter + 1** increases

counter by 1.

Constants

4. Input and Output

Use input() to get user input and print() to display output.

Assignments Example: **name = input("Enter your name: ")**,

**print("Hello", name)**+
 5. Data Types

Different data types are used for different kinds of information.

Input and Output

String: Text.

Ex: **message = "Hello"**, **postcode = "B72

6PY"**

Data types

Integer: Whole numbers (no decimal).

Ex: **age = 18**, **score = -4**, **year = 2025**

Float (Real): Numbers with decimals.

Ex: **weight = 72.5**, **price = 19.99**

Boolean: True/False values.

Ex: **is_logged_in = True**, **game_over =

False**

6. Casting

Converts one data type into another.

Example: **age = int("18")**,

**cost = float("19.99")**,

**score_str = str(100)**

**bool("text") is **True**, **bool(0) is **False**,

**bool(1) is **True**
7. Arithmetic Operators

Used for calculations.

Follow BIDMAS order.

+ add,

- subtract,

** multiply,

/ divide,

** exponent

// int divide,

% remainder

Example: 10 % 4 returns 2
8. Rounding and Math Functions

Use round(), math.floor(), math.ceil(),

math.sqrt() with import math.

Example: math.floor(3.7) is 3, round(2.678, 1) is 2.7

9. Random Numbers

Use import random.ç

Example: random.randint(1, 6) rolls a dice.

random.random() gives float between 0.0 and 1.0

10. Strings and Slicing

Strings are sequences of characters. Use slicing and

concatenation to manipulate.

text = "Python", **text[0] (first letter) = 'P',

text[1:4](its yth because its start to END so it doesn't include

end)

= 'yth', **len(text) = 6

Join strings with **+: **first + last**

11. ASCII and Character Codes

Convert characters to codes with ord(), and codes to characters

with chr().

Example: **ord('A') = 65, **chr(66) = 'B'**

12. String Formatting

Use .format() or f-strings for aligned and readable output.

Example: **print(f"{name:<10}{score:>5}") aligns

left and right

13. Lists and Arrays

Lists store multiple values: myList = [1, 2, 3], use indexes

to access.

Example: **myList[0] = 1, 2D list: **[[1,2],[3,4]]**

15. Subroutines

Functions (with return) and procedures (may not return). Define

using def.

Example: **def greet(name): return "Hi " +

name**
16. Variable Scope

Global variables are accessible throughout the program, local are

within functions.

Example: **x = 5 (global), inside **def, **x is local

17. Maintainable Code

Use clear variable names, comments, indentation, constants.

Helps understanding and debugging.

Example: **# This adds two numbers**

18. Robust Programming

Prevent crashes using checks: input presence, type, range, etc.

Example: **if name == "": print("Name

required")**

19. Authentication

Ask for username and password, validate match.

Example: **if user == "admin" and pwd ==

"1234": access_granted = True**

20. Errors in Programs

Syntax: typos (e.g., if x = 5). Logic: code runs but wrong

result. Runtime: crash during execution.

Example: **print(score/0) causes runtime error

21. Flow Control

Use Sequence, Selection (if/else), Iteration (for, while).

Example: **for i in range(5): print(i)** repeats 5

times

22. Turtle Module

Use turtle to draw with commands: forward(), right(),

penup(), goto().

Example: **turtle.forward(100) draws a line

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Components:

ALU – Performs arithmetic and logic operations.

Control Unit – Manages execution and controls the CPU.

Clock – Sends timing signals (ticks).

Registers – Store temporary data and instructions.

Bus – Data (bi-directional), Address (uni-directional), Control (bi-

directional).

Von Neumann Architecture:

Stores both data and programs in the same memory (RAM).

Follows a stored program concept meaning the CPU fetches

instructions from memory, decodes them, and then executes

them in a cycle
🔁 Fetch-Execute Cycle

Cycle Steps:

Fetch – Get instruction from memory.

Decode – Interpret the instruction.

Execute – Carry out the instruction.

Registers Involved: PC, MAR, MDR, CIR, ACC.

2. Main Memory (RAM)

RAM:

Volatile memory (data lost when power off).

Stores OS, programs, and data in use.

Random access – any location accessed directly.

Much faster than secondary storage.

3. Secondary Storage

Magnetic – HDDs, tapes: cheap, large, slower, fragile. store data

on spinning magnetic disks

Solid-state – SSDs, USBs: fast, durable, expensive per MB.use

flash memory chips

Optical – CDs, DVDs, BDs: good for distribution, not very durable.

Considerations:

Capacity, Speed, Portability, Durability, Cost.

4. Embedded Systems

Definition: Computers built into other devices for specific tasks.

Examples: Microwave, traffic lights, smart TVs, remote-control

cars.

IoT: Embedded systems connected to networks.

E.g. smart thermostats, baby cams.

Firmware: Software stored in ROM, not user-editable.

Security Risks: Easy to hack if weak passwords/default settings

.

5. Operating Systems

Roles:

Interface (GUI/CLI), multitasking, memory, file, and peripheral

management.

Security: users, permissions, passwords, biometrics.

Manages CPU time (scheduling) and virtual memory.

Scheduling: Round-robin, priority queues, first-come-first-served.

Virtual Memory: Used when RAM is full – slower than RAM.

6. Utility Software

Helps maintain the system:

File repair – Fixes corrupted files.

Backup – Full/incremental copies.

Defragmentation – Reorganizes file storage on disk.

Compression – Reduces file size.

Anti-malware – Detects/removes threats.

7. Programming Languages
 High-Level Languages: Python, Java – easy to read, portable.

Low-Level Languages:

Assembly – Close to machine code.

Machine Code – Binary instructions.

Translators:

Compiler – All at once.

Interpreter – Line by line.

8. Robust Software Design

Defensive Design:

Preventing crashes: file/printer errors, division by 0.

Input validation, error handling, and secure login systems.

Identifying Vulnerabilities:

Audit trails, code reviews, penetration testing

Key Terms