Overview of Human Behavior in Organization

Organizational Behavior (OB)

is the systematic study and
application of knowledge
concerning how individuals and
groups act within organizations.
It focuses on understanding and
improving workplace dynamics
by analyzing behaviors, attitudes,
and interactions among
employees. OB examines how
individuals and groups behave in
organizational settings. It does
not cover areas outside its scope,
such as childhood development,
though it may draw on related
research (e.g., genetics Individual (Innermost circle) -
influencing job attitudes). This level focuses on
understanding the behavior,
INTERDISCIPLINARY ROOTS attitudes, and performance of
1. Psychology - OB uses individuals within an
psychological concepts to organization. Topics at this level
understand personality, might include motivation,
motivation, and job attitudes. perception, personality, and
2. Sociology - Team processes individual decision-making.
and group dynamics are Group (Middle circle) - This level
informed by sociological examines the behavior of people
research. in groups or teams. It covers
3. Economics - Decision-making aspects such as group dynamics,
processes in organizations are communication, leadership,
influenced by economic power, and conflict within teams.
principles. Organization (Outermost circle)
4. Political Science - The study - This level looks at how the
of power and influence within organization as a whole behaves,
organizations borrows from including its structure, culture,
political science. processes, and strategies. It
5. Medical Science - Research deals with issues such as
on stress and its impact on organizational design, culture,
individuals also contributes to change, and overall
OB. organizational effectiveness.
 able to effectively convey
ideas during a presentation.
 Honesty/integrity: Building
Why Organizational Behavior trust with your team by being
Matters transparent about challenges.
1. Personal Benefits  Interpersonal skills:
 Engagement: OB helps you Successfully collaborating on a
become more engaged team project.
organizational member. For  Motivation/initiative: Taking
example, learning about the lead on a new project at
motivation theories can help work.
you stay motivated at work,  Strong work ethic:
leading to better job Consistently meeting
satisfaction. deadlines and delivering high-
 Interpersonal Skills: OB quality work.
improves how you get along 3. Organizational Significance
with others. For instance,  Profitability and
understanding emotional Effectiveness: Organizations
intelligence can help you that value OB are more
navigate office politics and profitable and effective. For
build stronger relationships example, companies like
with colleagues. Google prioritize employee
 Stress Reduction: OB can satisfaction by offering flexible
help lower your stress levels. work hours and a supportive
For example, by learning work environment, which
stress management leads to higher productivity.
techniques, you can handle 4. Characteristics of
high-pressure situations more Successful Organizations
effectively.  Selective Hiring: Google’s
2. Employer Importance rigorous hiring process
 Valued Skills: Employers ensures they select
highly value OB-related skills. candidates who align with
For example, in a job their culture.
interview, demonstrating  Self-managed Teams:
strong communication skills— Companies like Zappos allow
such as clearly explaining your teams to manage themselves,
past experiences—can fostering innovation and
increase your chances of accountability.
getting hired.  Competitive Pay: Netflix
Top Skills Sought by pays top salaries to attract
Employers and retain the best talent.
 Communication skills  Reduced Status
(verbal and written): Being Differences: Whole Foods
 has an open compensation 5. Strong work ethic - A
policy, where all employee dedication to consistently
salaries are transparent. performing high-quality work
 Information Sharing: At and meeting deadlines.
Bridgewater Associates, INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIORS AND
employees at all levels are PROCESSES IN
encouraged to share their ORGANIZATIONS
thoughts and ideas, leading to 1. People in Organizations
better decision-making. Individual Differences -
Example: Whole Foods has a Individual differences refer to the
salary cap, limiting the maximum unique characteristics that
pay for its CEO to 19 times the distinguish one person from
average employee salary, another, such as personality,
promoting fairness and reducing values, and intelligence.
income inequality within the Example: In a team, one person
company. might be highly detail-oriented
and methodical, while another
might be more creative and
THE FOLLOWING WERE THE spontaneous. These differences
TOP FIVE PERSONAL can complement each other
QUALITIES/SKILLS: when working on a project,
1. Communication skills leading to better overall results.
(verbal and written) - The The Concept of Fit - The
ability to clearly and concept of "fit" refers to how well
effectively communicate an individual's characteristics
ideas, whether in writing or align with the job, the
verbally. organization’s culture, or the
2. Honesty/integrity - Being work environment.
truthful and ethical in all Example: An extroverted,
business dealings, which outgoing person might excel in a
builds trust with colleagues sales role where they can interact
and clients. with clients frequently, whereas
3. Interpersonal skills someone more introverted might
(relates well to others) - be better suited for research or
The capacity to relate well to technical roles where deep
others, working effectively in concentration is required.
teams, and building positive Realistic Job Previews -
relationships. Realistic Job Previews (RJPs)
4. Motivation/initiative - The involve providing potential
drive to take proactive steps employees with a balanced view
and show enthusiasm in of the job, including both positive
tackling tasks and challenges. and negative aspects, before
they accept the offer.
Example: During the hiring control over the outcomes of
process, a company might show events in their lives.
a candidate a video that depicts Example: Someone with an
both the challenging and internal locus of control believes
rewarding aspects of the job. This their success is a result of their
helps ensure that the candidate own efforts, so they are likely to
knows what to expect and is take initiative and responsibility
more likely to be satisfied with in the workplace.
the job if hired. Authoritarianism - Is a
2. Personality and Individual personality trait where
Behavior individuals prefer strong,
The “Big Five” Framework - centralized control and are more
The Big Five personality traits are likely to follow orders without
Openness, Conscientiousness, question.
Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Example: An employee with high
Neuroticism. These traits are authoritarianism might thrive in a
used to describe and predict military environment where
individual behavior in the following commands is crucial.
workplace. A highly conscientious Machiavellianism - Refers to a
person might be very reliable and person's tendency to manipulate
organized, making them an others for personal gain.
excellent project manager who Example: In a corporate setting,
ensures that deadlines are met. a highly Machiavellian person
The Myers–Briggs Framework might use flattery or deceit to
- The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator climb the corporate ladder,
(MBTI) categorizes people into 16 potentially creating a toxic work
personality types based on four environment.
dimensions: Tolerance for Risk and
Extraversion/Introversion, Ambiguity - This trait describes
Sensing/Intuition, how comfortable an individual is
Thinking/Feeling, and with uncertainty and taking risks.
Judging/Perceiving. Example: An entrepreneur with a
Example: An INTJ (Introverted, high tolerance for risk might be
Intuitive, Thinking, Judging) more willing to invest in a startup
might be very strategic and excel with no guaranteed success,
in roles that require long-term while someone with a low
planning and problem-solving. tolerance might prefer a stable
3. Other Important job in an established company.
Personality Traits Type A and B Traits - Type A
Locus of Control - Locus of individuals are competitive,
Control refers to the degree to highly organized, and driven,
which people believe they have while Type B individuals are more
relaxed, patient, and less stress- Multiple Intelligences - The
prone. theory of Multiple Intelligences
Example: A Type A personality suggests that there are different
might thrive in a fast-paced sales kinds of intelligences, such as
environment, while a Type B linguistic, logical-mathematical,
personality might prefer a job spatial, and interpersonal
that allows for more creativity intelligence.
and flexibility. Example: A person with high
The Bullying Personality - This interpersonal intelligence might
refers to individuals who exhibit excel in roles that require strong
aggressive behavior and tend to people skills, such as a human
dominate or bully others in the resources manager.
workplace. Emotional Intelligence (EI) - Is
Example: A manager with a the ability to recognize,
bullying personality might understand, and manage your
frequently belittle employees, own emotions, as well as the
leading to a hostile work emotions of others
environment and high turnover. Example: A leader with high
Role of the Situation - The role emotional intelligence might be
of the situation suggests that adept at resolving conflicts within
personality traits alone do not their team by understanding and
determine behavior; the context addressing the emotional needs
or situation also plays a of their employees.
significant role. 5. Learning Styles
Example: An employee who is Sensory Modalities - Refer to
generally quiet and reserved the preferred ways people take in
might become more assertive in information, such as visual,
a leadership role where they are auditory, or kinesthetic learning.
required to give instructions and Example: A visual learner might
make decisions. benefit from diagrams and charts
during a presentation, while an
4. Intelligence auditory learner might prefer
General Mental Ability (GMA) listening to the information being
- Refers to an individual's overall explained.
cognitive abilities, including
reasoning, problem-solving, and Learning Style Inventory - Is a
learning. tool used to assess an
Example: An employee with high individual’s preferred way of
GMA might quickly grasp new learning.
concepts and excel in roles that Example: After taking a Learning
require analytical thinking, such Style Inventory, an employee
as data analysis. might discover that they learn
best through hands-on
experience, leading them to seek
out more practical training
opportunities.
Learning Style Orientations -
Refers to broader approaches to
learning, such as a preference for
learning by doing (active
learning) versus learning by Philosophical
reflecting (reflective learning). Perspective of the
Example: An employee who
prefers active learning might
Self
Philosophy employs the
thrive in a workshop setting
inquisitive mind to discover the
where they can immediately
ultimate causes, reasons, and
apply new skills, while a
principles of everything. It goes
reflective learner might benefit
beyond scientific investigation by
more from reading and thinking
exploring all areas of knowledge,
about concepts before applying
such as religion, psychology,
them.
politics, physics, and even
medicine. Hence, the
etymological definition of
philosophy, "love of wisdom,"
could pertain to the desire for
truth by formulating never-
ending questions to provide
answers to every inquiry about
the nature of human existence.
The nature of the self is a topic of
interest among philosophers.

The philosophical framework for

understanding the self was first
introduced by the ancient great
Greek philosophers Socrates,
Plato, and Aristotle. In particular,
Socrates suggests, "Know
thyself." However, what exactly
does "know thyself" mean? What
is self and the qualities that
define it? This chapter presents
an overview of the philosophical
perspective of the self to assist
students in identifying one's own
self to gain self-knowledge. It goodness, and beauty. The soul
intends to give a wider belongs to the ideal realm.
perspective in understanding the
self. The different views of Socrates explains that the
prominent philosophers regarding essence of the self — the soul —
the nature of the self are is the immortal entity. The soul
discussed, and although there strives for wisdom and
are disagreements in how perfection, and reason is the
philosophers view the self, most soul's tool to achieve this exalted
of them agree that self- state. However, as long as the
knowledge is a prerequisite to a soul is tied to the body, the quest
happy and meaningful life. for wisdom is inhibited by the
imperfection of the physical
realm, where it wanders and is
SOCRATES: confused. Thus, Socrates
AN UNEXAMINED LIFE IS NOT suggests that man must live an
WORTH LIVING examined life and a life of
purpose and value. For him, an
For Socrates, the self is unexamined life is not worth
synonymous with the soul. He living. An individual person can
believes that every human have a meaningful and happy life
possesses an immortal soul that only if he or she becomes
survives the physical body. virtuous and knows the value of
Socrates was the first to focus on himself or herself, which can be
the full power of reason on the achieved through incessant soul
human self: who we are, who we searching. He or she must begin
should be, and who we will at the source of all knowledge
become. Socrates suggests that and significance — the self. The
reality consists of two Socratic method, the so- called
dichotomous realms: physical introspection, is a method of
and ideal. The physical realm is carefully examining one's
changeable, transient, and thoughts and emotions to gain
imperfect. The ideal realm is self-knowledge.
unchanging, eternal, and
immortal. The physical world in PLATO:
which man lives belongs to the THE SELF IS AN IMMORTAL SOUL
physical realm. For Socrates, the
body belongs to the physical Another ancient Greek
realm. Meanwhile, the philosopher, Plato, elaborates on
unchanging, eternal, and perfect Socrates' concept of the soul.
realm includes the intellectual Like Socrates, Plato believes that
essence of the universe and the self is synonymous with the
concepts such as truth, soul. His philosophy can be
explained as a process of self- introduces the concepts of the
knowledge and purification of the two worlds: the world of forms
soul. Specifically, he introduces (non- physical ideas) and the
the idea of a three- part soul/self: world of sense (reality). Whereas
reason, physical appetite, and the world of forms is real and
spirit or passion. Reason is the permanent, the world of sense is
divine essence that enables us to temporary and only a replica of
think deeply, make wise choices, the ideal world. Plato claims that
and achieve a true understanding the sensible world is dependent
of eternal truths. Physical on the ideal world where the
appetite includes our basic concept of the soul belongs.
biological needs, such as hunger, Because the soul is regarded as
thirst, and sexual desire. Spirit something permanent, man
or passion includes basic should give more importance to it
emotions, such as love, anger, than the physical body that
ambition, aggressiveness, and resides in the world of sense.
empathy. These three elements
of our selves are in a dynamic ARISTOTLE:
relationship with one another, THE SOUL IS THE ESSENCE OF
sometimes in conflict. When THE SELF
conflict occurs, Plato believes it is
the responsibility of Reason to Another Greek philosopher,
sort things out and exert control, Aristotle, believes that the soul is
thus, restoring a harmonious merely a set of defining features
relationship among the three and does not consider the body
elements of the self. and soul as separate entities. He
Furthermore, Plato believes that suggests that anything with life
genuine happiness can only be has a soul. Aristotle holds that
achieved by people who the soul is the essence of all
consistently make sure that their living things. Thus, the soul is the
Reason is in control of their Spirit essence of the self. However,
and Appetite. This harmonious humans differ from other living
integration under the control of things because of their capacity
Reason is the essence of Plato's for rational thinking. His
concept of justice. As such, if discussion about the self centers
man lives in accordance to his on the kinds of souls possessed
nature, then he is giving justice by man. Thus, he introduces the
to his existence. three kinds of souls: vegetative,
sentient, and rational. The
Having described his vision of the vegetative soul includes the
soul/self, Plato goes on to physical body that can grow. The
elaborate his ideas about the sentient soul includes sensual
soul. In his Theory of Forms, he desires, feelings, and emotions.
The rational soul is what makes element of man. He believes that
man human. It includes the the soul is what governs and
intellect that allows man to know defines man.
and understand things. Aristotle
suggests that the rational nature In his work, Confessions,
of the self is to lead a good, Augustine describes that
flourishing, and fulfilling life (self- humankind is created in the
actualization). The pursuit of image and likeness of God.
happiness is a search for a good Everything created by God who is
life that includes doing virtuous all good is good. Therefore, the
actions. In saying this, he posits human person, being a creation
that part of the rational soul is of God, is always geared towards
characterized by moral virtues, the good. Augustine is convinced
such as justice and courage. that the self is known only
through knowing God.
ST. AUGUSTINE: Accordingly, self- knowledge is a
THE SOUL IS SUPERIOR TO THE consequence of the knowledge of
BODY God. Augustine espouses the
significance of reflection, as well
The African philosopher, as the importance of prayers and
Augustine, is regarded as a saint confessions to arrive at a
(i.e., St. Augustine of Hippo) in justification for the existence of
the Catholic Church. He God. For him, "knowledge can
integrates the ideas of Plato and only come by seeing the truth
the teachings of Christianity. that dwells within us." The truth
Augustine believes that the of which Augustine speaks refers
physical body is radically to the truth of knowing God. God
different from and inferior to its is transcendent, and the self
inhabitant, the immortal soul. As seeks to be united with God
his thinking matured, he through faith and reason. In his
developed a more unified mission to discover the truth of
perspective on the body and the existence of God, Augustine
soul. He ultimately came to view develops the fundamental
the body as the "spouse" of the concept of the human person
soul, both attached to one and, thus, provides the
another by a "natural appetite." philosophical principle, "I am
He believes that the body is doubting, therefore I am."
united with the soul so that man
may be entire and complete. RENÉ DESCARTES:
Nevertheless, as a religious I THINK, THEREFORE I AM
philosopher, he contemplates on
the nature of man, with emphasis French philosopher René
on the soul as an important Descartes is the father of modern
philosophy. He has brought an The essential self — the self as a
entirely new perspective to thinking entity — is distinct from
philosophy and the self. He wants the self a physical body. Simply
to penetrate the nature of the put, the thinking self can exist
reasoning process and independently of the physical
understand its relationship to the body.
human self. The Latin phrase,
Cogito, ergo sum - "I think,
therefore I am," is the keystone
of Descartes' concept of the self.
For him, the act of thinking about
the self — of being self-conscious
— is in itself proof that there is a JOHN LOCKE:
self. He is confident that no THE SELF IS CONSCIOUSNESS
rational person will doubt his or
her own existence as a For English philosopher John
conscious, thinking entity, while Locke, the human mind at birth is
he or she is aware of thinking tabula rasa or a blank slate. He
about the self. For Descartes, this thinks that the self, or personal
is the essence of the human self identity, is constructed primarily
— a thinking entity that doubts, from sense experiences — or
understands, analyzes, more specifically, what people
questions, and reasons. see, hear, smell, taste, and feel.
These experiences shape and
He contends further that if a mold the self throughout a
person reflects thoughtfully, he person's life. For Locke, conscious
or she will realize that there are awareness and a memory of
two dimensions of the human previous experiences are the
self: the self as a thinking entity keys to understanding the self.
and the self as a physical body. In Locke believes that the essence
particular, he introduces the idea of the self is its conscious
of the thinking self (or soul) as a awareness of itself as a thinking,
non-material, immortal, and reasoning, and reflecting identity.
conscious being that is He contends that consciousness
independent of the physical laws accompanies thinking and makes
of the universe. In contrast, the possible the concept people have
physical body is a material of a self. Self-consciousness is
mortal, non-thinking entity, fully necessary to have a coherent
governed by the physical laws of personal (self) identity or
nature. In other words, the soul knowledge of the self as a
and the body are independent of person. Consciousness is what
one another, and each can exist makes the identity of a person
and function without the other. similar in different situations.
 are less lively and vivid. Hume
At this point, Locke is proposing further posits that different
that people could use the power sensations are in a constant
of reason to gain knowledge and, continuum, which is invariable
consequently, use this knowledge and not constant. Hume argues
to understand experiences. that it cannot be from any of
Knowledge is based on careful these impressions that the idea
observation of experiences. of the self is derived, and
Reason plays an important role in consequently, there is no self.
helping to figure out the Hume's skeptical claim on this
significance of sense experience issue is that people have no
and reach intelligent conclusions. experience of a simple and
Thus, using the power of reason individual impression that they
and introspection enables one to can call the self, where the self is
understand and achieve accurate the totality of a person's
conclusions about the self (or conscious life. Subsequently, the
personal identity). idea of personal identity is a
result of imagination.
DAVID HUME:
THERE IS NO SELF

Scottish philosopher David Hume

suggests that if people carefully IMMANUEL KANT:
examine their sense experience THE SELF TRANSCENDS
through the process of EXPERIENCE
introspection, they will discover
that there is no self. According to For German philosopher
Hume, what people experience is Immanuel Kant, it is the self that
just a bundle or collection of makes experiencing an
different perceptions. Hume intelligible world possible
maintains that if people carefully because it is the self that is
examine the contents of their actively organizing and
experience, they will find that synthesizing all thoughts and
there are only distinct entities: perceptions. The self, in the form
impressions and ideas. of consciousness, utilizes
Impressions are the basic conceptual categories, which he
sensations of people's calls transcendental deduction of
experience, such as hate, love, categories, to construct an
joy, grief, pain, cold, and heat. orderly and objective world that
Impressions are vivid perceptions is stable and can be investigated
and are strong and lively. Ideas, scientifically. Kant believes that
however, are thoughts and the self is an organizing principle
images from impressions, so they that makes a unified and
intelligible experience possible. It rational, practical, and
is metaphorically above or appropriate to the environment.
behind sense experience, and it The conscious self usually takes
uses the categories of the mind into account the realistic
to filter, order, relate, organize, demands of a situation, the
and synthesize sensations into a consequences of various actions,
unified whole. In other words, the and the overriding need to
self - constructs its own reality, preserve the equilibrium
actively creating a world that is (balance) of the entire
familiar, predictable, and most psychodynamic system of the
significantly, mine. The self is the self. In contrast, the unconscious
product of reason, a regulative part of the self contains the basic
principle, because it regulates instinctual drives, including
experience by making unified sexuality, aggressiveness, and
experiences possible. The self self-destruction; traumatic
transcends experience because memories; unfulfilled wishes and
the mind can grasp aspects of childhood fantasies; and
reality that are not limited to the thoughts and feelings that would
senses. Through rationality, be considered socially taboo. The
people are able to understand unconscious level is
certain abstract ideas that have characterized by the most
no corresponding physical object primitive level of human
or sensory experience. motivation and human
functioning that is governed by
the "pleasure principle." Freud
argues that much of the self is
SIGMUND FREUD: determined by the unconscious.
THE SELF IS MULTILAYERED Meanwhile, the preconscious self
contains material that is not
Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund threatening and is easily brought
Freud is not a philosopher, but his to mind. According to Freud, the
views on the nature of the self- preconscious part is located
have a far-reaching impact on between the conscious and the
philosophical thinking, as well as unconscious parts of the self.
other disciplines, such as GILBERT RYLE:
psychology and sociology. Freud THE SELF IS THE WAY PEOPLE
holds that the self consists of BEHAVE
three layers: conscious,
unconscious, and preconscious. British philosopher Gilbert Ryle
The conscious self is governed by believes that the self is best
the "reality principle." The understood as a pattern of
conscious part of the self is behavior, the tendency or
organized in ways that are disposition of a person to behave
in a certain way in certain THE SELF IS EMBODIED
circumstances. Ryle's concept of SUBJECTIVITY
the human self thus provides the
philosophical principle, "I act, French philosopher Maurice
therefore, I am." Ryle considers Merleau- Ponty argues that all
the mind and body to be knowledge about the self (e.g.,
intrinsically linked in complex understanding the nature of the
and intimate ways. In short, the self) is based on the
self is the same as bodily "phenomena" of experience. The
behavior. He concludes that the "I" is a single integrated core
mind is the totality of human identity, a combination of the
dispositions which is known mental, physical, and emotional
through the way people behave. structures around a core identity
Nevertheless, Ryle is convinced of the self. He further articulates
that the mind expresses the that when people examine the
entire system of thoughts, self at the fundamental level of
emotions, and actions that make direct human experience, they
up the human self. will discover that the mind and
body are unified, not separate.
PAUL CHURCHLAND: He notes in his book,
THE SELF IS THE BRAIN Phenomenology of Perception,
that everything that people are
Canadian philosopher Paul aware of is contained within the
Churchland advocates the idea of consciousness. Consciousness is
eliminative materialism or the a dynamic form responsible for
idea that the self is inseparable actively structuring conscious
from the brain and the ideas and physical behavior. He is
physiology of the body. All a convinced that consciousness,
person has is the brain, so if the the world, and the human body
brain is gone, there is no self. For are intricately intertwined in
Churchland, the physical brain, perceiving the world. For him,
and not the imaginary mind, perception is not merely a
gives people the sense of self. consequence of sensory
The mind does not really exist experience; rather, it is a
because it cannot be experienced conscious experience. Thus, the
by the senses. self is embodied subjectivity.

MAURICE MERLEAU-
PONTY:
 Therefore, if people desire to be
satisfied with things in life, they
Sociological should not be persuaded by the
postmodern culture of
Perspective: advertisement and mass media,
The Self as a Product of Society which suggest false needs.

The sociological perspective Sociology, as a scientific study of

of the self is based on the social groups and human
assumption that human behavior relationships, generates new
is influenced by group life. A insights into the
particular view of oneself is interconnectedness between the
formed through interactions with self and other people. Hence,
other people, groups, or social sociologists offer theories to
institutions. This chapter draws explain how the self emerges as
on the principles and concepts of a product of social experience.
well-known sociologists to foster The looking glass self by
students' understanding of Charles Horton Cooley and the
sociology and how sociology theory of the social self by
impacts students' everyday lives, George Herbert Mead are
and provide a pathway to self- helpful in understanding how a
understanding of "who you are" person views himself or herself
and "what you are" in as he or she interacts with the
contemporary society. For social environment, which
sociologists such as Mead and includes family, school, peer
Cooley, the self does not depend groups, and mass media.
on biological predispositions;
rather, it is a product of social In 1902, sociologist Charles
interaction. The sense of self Horton Cooley introduced the
emerges as an individual looking-glass self to highlight
partakes in a society. Whereas an that the people whom a person
individual seeks solid and stable interacts with become a mirror in
self-identity in modern society, a which he or she views himself or
postmodern individual tries to herself. Self-identity or self-
avoid fixation and keeps options image is achieved through a
open for self-improvement French threefold event that begins by
sociologist Jean Baudrillard conceiving an idea of how a
posits that in the postmodern person presents himself or
society, the self is found in the herself to others, how he or she
prestige symbols of goods analyzes how others perceive
consumed by people. The him or her, and how he or she
postmodern person has become creates an image of himself or
an insatiable consumer. herself. Because these
perceptions are subjective, a others' point of view — a process
person might have wrong that Mead labels as role-taking.
interpretations of how other Then, he or she creates his or her
people evaluate him or her. It own role and anticipates how
would be critical if he or she others will respond. When he or
thinks that others judge him or she performs his or her own
her unfavorably because he or particular role, he or she
she could develop a negative becomes self-aware. The self
self-image (Kendall, 2013; continues to change along with
Macionis, 2015; Schaefer, 2014). his or her social experience. In
other words, no matter how
Another sociologist, George much the world shapes a person,
Herbert Mead, supports the view he or she will always remain a
that a person develops a sense of creative being and be able to
self through social interaction, react to the world around him or
not the biological preconditions her (Kendall, 2013; Macionis,
of that interaction. Mead's 2015).
theory of the social self
explains that the self has two
divisions: the "I" and the "ME."
The "I" is the subjective element
and the active side of the self. It
represents the spontaneous and
unique traits of an individual. The
"ME," meanwhile, is the objective Mead details the development of
element of the self that the self in a three-stage process
represents the internalized
attitudes and demands of other 1. In the preparatory stage (0
people and an individual's to 3 years old), children in the
awareness of those demands. people around them, especially
The full development of the self family members with whom they
is attained when the "I" and the have daily interactions. They
"ME" are united. According to copy behavior without
Mead, the self is not present at understanding underlying
birth. It develops only with social intentions, so at this stage, they
experience in which language, have no sense of self. During this
gestures, and objects are used to stage, children are just preparing
communicate meaningfully. for role-taking
Because there is meaning in
human actions, a person infers 2. During the play stage (3 to 5
people's intentions or directions years old), children start to view
of actions, which may lead him or themselves in relation to others
her to understand the world from as they learn to communicate
through language and other traditions. Although this
symbols. At this stage, role- newfound freedom offers infinite
taking is exhibited; however, possibilities for self-cultivation,
children do net perceive role- problems, such as alienation and
taking as something expected of dehumanization 1 of the self, also
them. The self emerges as appear, which hinder the full
children pretend to take the roles development of human potential.
of specific people or significant Hence, there is a need to
others, those individuals who are discover the "authentic core of
important agents of socialization. the self for an individual to freely
At this stage, the self is work towards self-realization.
developing Whereas the dissolution of
traditional values and
3. In the game stage (begins in communities in modern society
the early school years), children has led the individual to
understand not only their own construct a solid and stable self-
social position but also those of identity, the postmodern
others around them. At this individual welcomes all
stage, children become possibilities for self-improvement.
concerned about, and take into In postmodern societies, self-
account in their behavior, the identity continuously changes
generalized others, which refer to due to the demands of
the attitudes, viewpoints, multitudes of social contexts,
demands, and expectations of new information technologies,
the society, which include and globalization.
cultural norms and values that
serve as references in evaluating French sociologist Jean
oneself. This time, they can have Baudrillard exposes the negative
a more sophisticated look of consequences of postmodernity
people and an ability to respond to individuals in the society
to numerous members of the (Demeterio, 2013). For him,
social environment. During this consumption structures the
stage, the self is now present. postmodern society. Postmodern
individuals achieve self-identity
Gerry Lanuza (2004), in his through the prestige symbols
article, "The Constitution of the that they consume. Individuals
Self, discusses the relationship seek a position in society through
between society and the the quality of prestige symbols
individual. According to him, in that they can afford to consume.
modern societies, the attainment The cultural practices of
and stability of self-identity are advertising and mass media
freely chosen. They are no longer greatly influence individuals to
restricted by customs and consume goods not for their
primary value and utility but for
the feeling of goodness and 4. According to Lanuza, self-
power when compared with identity continuously changes
others. Hence, the postmodern due to the demands of
person has become an insatiable multitudes of social contexts,
consumer and may never be new information technologies,
satisfied in his or her life. For and globalization.
example, a person buys an
expensive cellular phone not 5. Baudrillard explains that
because it is a useful individuals achieve self-identity
communication device but through the prestige symbols
because of its prestige symbol; that they consume.
he or she will desire to buy a new
cellular phone when he or she
learns that a new and more
prestigious model has come out
in the market or when he or she
discovers that other people are
using more expensive ones.
Therefore, the self may be in a
never-ending search for prestige
in the postmodern society.

DISCOVER

1. The looking-glass self, a

concept introduced by Charles
Horton Cooley, describes the
development of one's self and
identity through interactions with
others.

2. Mead suggests that the self

has two divisions: the I and the
me. The I is the subjective
element and the active side of
the self, whereas the me is the
objective element of the self.

3. According to Mead, the self

passes through three stages of
development: preparatory, play,
and game.