Unit 2
Oscillations
Damped Oscillations
Damped oscillations occur when an oscillating system gradually loses energy over time, causing
the amplitude of the oscillations to decrease. This damping effect is usually introduced
intentionally or results from inherent resistance and dissipative forces within the system. There
are several causes and concepts related to damping in oscillatory systems:
Causes of Damping:
1. Viscous Damping:
Concept: In viscous damping, the damping force is directly proportional to the
velocity of the oscillating object. Mathematically, the damping force Fd can be
expressed as
Fd =−c⋅v, where c is the damping coefficient and v is the velocity.
Cause: This type of damping often results from the presence of a fluid (like air or
oil) through which the object is moving. The fluid introduces resistance, and the
faster the object moves, the greater the damping force.
2. Structural Damping:
Concept: Structural damping arises from internal friction within the material of
the oscillating object. Unlike viscous damping, it is not directly proportional to
velocity.
Cause: The internal molecular and structural interactions within a material can
dissipate energy in the form of heat, leading to a gradual reduction in the
amplitude of oscillations.
3. Radiation Damping:
Concept: In oscillating systems that emit electromagnetic waves or other forms
of radiation, energy is lost as the waves propagate away from the system.
Cause: This type of damping is common in systems involving accelerated
charged particles, such as antennas or oscillating circuits.
4. Coupling Damping:
Concept: If an oscillatory system is coupled with another system, energy can be
transferred between the two systems, leading to damping.
Cause: For example, mechanical vibrations in a structure can be transferred to
another connected structure, causing a loss of energy in the oscillating system.
Types of Damping:
1. Critical Damping:
Concept: When a damped system returns to its equilibrium position as quickly as
possible without oscillating, it is said to be critically damped.
Cause: Achieved when the damping is adjusted to the point where the system
reaches its equilibrium state without overshooting or oscillating.
2. Under Damping:
Concept: Under damping occurs when the damping is insufficient, and the
system oscillates before reaching its equilibrium position.
Cause: Incomplete dissipation of energy leads to multiple oscillations before
settling.
3. Over Damping:
Concept: Over damping occurs when excessive damping prevents the system
from oscillating and causes it to return slowly to its equilibrium position.
Cause: Excessive dissipation of energy results in a slow return to equilibrium
without oscillations.
Differential Equation of a Damped Oscillator
Newton's second law states that the sum of the forces acting on an object is equal to the mass of
the object times its acceleration. In this case, the forces include the spring force and the damping
force.
The spring force is given by Hooke's Law: Fs =−kx, where the negative sign indicates that the
force is opposite to the displacement.
The damping force is proportional to the velocity of the object: Fd =−cdx/dt, where dx/dt is the
velocity.
The sum of these forces gives the net force acting on the object:
𝑑 𝑥
F = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
Using Newton's second law, we set the net force equal to the mass times acceleration:
𝑚 = −𝑐 − 𝑘𝑥. Now, rearrange this equation
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 +𝑐 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where:
m is the mass of the object,
x is the displacement of the object from its equilibrium position,
k is the spring constant,
c is the damping coefficient,
t is time.
The terms in the equation represent the following:
𝑚 : Inertia term, representing the resistance of the mass to changes in motion.
𝑐 : Damping term, representing the damping force proportional to the velocity of the
object.
𝑘𝑥: Spring force term, representing the restorative force exerted by the spring.
This second-order linear homogeneous ordinary differential equation can be solved to find the
displacement x(t) as a function of time. The solution depends on the specific values of m, c, and
k, and it leads to different types of damping behavior, such as under damping, critical damping,
or over damping.
Methods of Describing Damping of an Oscillator
Damping in an oscillator can be described using various methods and parameters that quantify
the effect of damping on the oscillatory behavior. Here are some commonly used methods:
1. Damping Ratio (ζ):
The damping ratio is a dimensionless parameter that characterizes the level of
damping in a system. It is defined as the ratio of the actual damping coefficient (c)
to the critical damping coefficient (cc) for the system.
𝜁=
For an underdamped system (ζ<1), the response exhibits oscillations. For a
critically damped system (ζ=1), the response returns to equilibrium without
oscillations. For an overdamped system (ζ>1), the response is sluggish with no
oscillations.
2. Quality Factor (Q):
The quality factor is another measure of the damping in an oscillator. It is the ratio
of the energy stored in the system to the energy dissipated per cycle.
𝑄=
A higher Q indicates less damping, and the system will have a more pronounced
and longer-lasting oscillation.
3. Time Constant (τ):
The time constant is a measure of how quickly the system responds to changes. It
is related to the damping ratio and is defined as the reciprocal of the natural
frequency (ωn) of the undamped system.
𝜏=
A smaller time constant indicates faster decay of oscillations.
4. Logarithmic Decrement (δ):
The logarithmic decrement is a measure of the rate at which the amplitude of
oscillations decreases over time in an under damped system. It is the natural
logarithm of the ratio of any two successive peaks or troughs.
( )
𝛿 = 𝑙𝑛( ), Where x (t) is the amplitude at time t and T is the time period
( )
between two successive peaks or troughs.
5. Critical Damping Coefficient (cc):
The critical damping coefficient is the damping coefficient at which the system is
critically damped. In critical damping, the system returns to its equilibrium
position as quickly as possible without oscillating.
𝑐𝒄 = 2√𝑚𝑘
6. Loss Factor (tanδ):
In the context of electrical circuits and vibrational analysis, the loss factor (tanδ)
is often used to describe the ratio of energy dissipated to energy stored per cycle.
LCR Circuit as a Damped Oscillator
An LCR circuit, consisting of an inductor (L), a capacitor (C), and a resistor (R) connected in
series, can be considered as a damped oscillator. The behavior of the circuit can be modeled as a
damped harmonic oscillator, where the damping is introduced by the resistor in the circuit.
The differential equation governing the dynamics of a series LCR circuit can be derived using
Kirchhoff's voltage law and Ohm's law. Let q(t) represent the charge on the capacitor, i(t)
represent the current through the circuit, and E(t) represent the electromotive force (EMF)
provided by an external source. The equation is:
𝑑 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 1
𝐿 +𝑅 + 𝑞 = 𝐸(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
This equation combines the effects of the inductor, resistor, and capacitor in the circuit. The term
𝐿 represents the back electromotive force (emf) due to the inductor; Ri represents the voltage
drop across the resistor, and 𝑞 represents the voltage across the capacitor.
For an oscillatory response, we can assume a sinusoidal excitation E(t)=E0cos(ωt)), where E0 is
the amplitude of the external voltage and ω is the angular frequency. Substituting this into the
differential equation and solving for the current i(t) yields a solution that shows the damped
oscillatory behavior:
𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
Where:
A is the amplitude of the oscillation,
𝛼= is the damping factor,
𝜔 = 𝜔 − 𝛼 is the angular frequency of the damped oscillation, where ω0 is the
natural (undamped) angular frequency of the circuit,
ϕ is the phase angle.
The natural angular frequency (ω0) is given by 𝜔 = .
√
This solution illustrates that the LCR circuit exhibits damped oscillations due to the presence of
the resistor. The damping factor (α) determines the rate at which the oscillations decay.
Depending on the values of the circuit elements, the circuit can be under damped, critically
damped, or over damped, resulting in different types of responses. The analysis of LCR circuits
as damped oscillators is fundamental in understanding their behavior in applications such as
filters and resonant circuits.
Forced Oscillations:
Forced oscillations occur when an external force or input is applied to a system, causing it to
oscillate at a frequency determined by the driving force. The system may have its own natural
frequency of oscillation, but the external force imposes a different frequency upon it. Forced
oscillations are prevalent in various physical systems, such as mechanical systems, electrical
circuits, and fluid dynamics. Here are some key concepts related to forced oscillations:
1. Equation of Motion for Forced Oscillations:
The equation of motion for a system undergoing forced oscillations can be expressed as a
second-order linear ordinary differential equation. For example, in the case of a damped
harmonic oscillator subjected to an external force F(t), the equation can be written as:
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 +𝑐 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔 𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where:
m is the mass of the system,
c is the damping coefficient,
k is the spring constant,
x is the displacement,
𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔 𝑡)is the external force applied.
2. Steady-State Response:
For a system undergoing forced oscillations, the steady-state response refers to the behavior of
the system after transients have died out. In the steady-state, the system's motion becomes
periodic and follows the frequency of the applied force.
3. Resonance:
Resonance occurs when the frequency of the external force matches the natural frequency of the
system. In such cases, the amplitude of the steady-state response can become very large, leading
to significant vibrations. Resonance is a crucial consideration in engineering design to avoid
excessive vibrations and potential damage to structures.
4. Amplitude and Phase:
The amplitude and phase of the system's response in forced oscillations depend on the frequency
of the applied force. A frequency response analysis can be used to determine how the system
responds at different frequencies. The amplitude and phase relationship between the applied
force and the system's response is often represented in a Bode plot.
5. Transfer Function:
In the context of control systems and electrical circuits, the transfer function is a valuable tool for
analyzing forced oscillations. The transfer function relates the output response to the input force
as a function of frequency.
6. Resonant Frequency:
The resonant frequency is the frequency at which the amplitude of the steady-state response is
maximized. It corresponds to the natural frequency of the system when damping is low.
7. Quality Factor (Q):
The quality factor characterizes the sharpness of resonance and is defined as the ratio of the
resonant frequency to the bandwidth. A higher Q indicates a sharper resonance.
Forced oscillations are essential in understanding and designing systems that are subjected to
external forces, and they have applications in fields such as mechanical engineering, electrical
engineering, and physics. Analyzing the response of systems to external forces helps engineers
and scientists optimize performance and avoid undesirable effects such as resonance-induced
damage.
Resonance in Forced Oscillators
Resonance in forced oscillators refers to a phenomenon where the amplitude of the oscillator's
response becomes significantly amplified when the frequency of the external driving force
matches the natural frequency of the system. In other words, resonance occurs when the driving
frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the oscillator.
For a forced harmonic oscillator described by the equation:
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 +𝑐 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔 𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where:
m is the mass of the oscillator,
c is the damping coefficient,
k is the spring constant,
x is the displacement from equilibrium,
F0 is the amplitude of the external force,
ωd is the angular frequency of the external force.
Resonance occurs when ωd, the frequency of the applied force, equals the natural angular
frequency ω0 of the oscillator:
ωd=ω0
At resonance, several key features become apparent:
1. Maximum Amplitude: The amplitude of the oscillator's response at resonance is
maximized. It can become significantly larger than the amplitude of the applied force.
2. Phase Angle: The phase angle between the applied force and the oscillator's response
becomes zero at resonance. The response is said to be "in-phase" with the driving force.
3. Impedance Minimum: The impedance of the oscillator is at its minimum at resonance,
meaning that the oscillator offers minimal opposition to the applied force. This is another
way of saying that the system is efficiently absorbing energy from the driving force.
4. Energy Transfer: The energy transfer from the external force to the oscillator is most
efficient at resonance. The system tends to absorb more energy, leading to the large
amplitude of the response.
The resonant frequency ω0 is determined by the system's mass, spring constant, and damping
coefficient. The quality factor (Q) of the system also influences the width of the resonance peak.
A higher Q results in a narrower peak, meaning that the system is more selective in responding to
a narrow range of frequencies around the resonant frequency.
