POLITICAL SCIENCE-

INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS ASSIGNMENT
2024-25

SEMESTER IV

SUBMITTED BY:
Pratyusha Priyadarshini SUBMITTED TO:
B.A.LL.B, Semester IV Mr. Manoj Kumar
Mishra
ROLL: 23225BLT053
 THE SHADOW OF GLOBAL VIOLENCE:
INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM

INTRODUCTION
When we speak of fear knowing no borders, it's not just a
metaphorical statement. The interconnectedness of our world,
facilitated by rapid communication, ease of travel, and globalized
economies, allows terrorist ideologies and operational capabilities to
spread with alarming speed. An attack plotted in one nation can be
executed in another, targeting individuals or interests linked to yet
another country. Think about the way information, both factual and
distorted, can travel across the internet in seconds, potentially
radicalizing individuals far from the physical conflict zones. This
borderless nature is a defining characteristic and a significant
challenge in countering it.
The idea of a single act rippling outwards highlights the psychological
and political impact that extends far beyond the immediate casualties.
A successful terrorist attack, even a relatively small one, can generate
widespread fear and anxiety, influencing public opinion, shaping
political discourse, and prompting governments to implement
significant policy changes. Consider the global impact of events like
9/11, which led to major shifts in security protocols, foreign policy
decisions, and even cultural perceptions across the globe. The
reverberations are felt in airports, in political debates, and in the
everyday lives of citizens worldwide.
The "shadowy force" analogy underscores the often clandestine nature
of terrorist organizations. They frequently operate in the shadows,
utilizing decentralized networks, exploiting ungoverned spaces, and
employing sophisticated methods to evade detection. This makes
them a difficult adversary to identify, track, and dismantle. Their
anonymity and ability to adapt and evolve their tactics further
complicate counter-terrorism efforts.
The "complex tapestry" metaphor emphasizes the diverse and
interconnected factors that fuel international terrorism. It's rarely a
monolithic phenomenon driven by a single cause. Instead, it often
arises from a confluence of long-standing political grievances, deeply
held ideological beliefs, and extremist interpretations of religious
doctrines. Understanding these interwoven threads – the historical
context of conflicts, the appeal of radical ideologies, the socio-
economic conditions that can foster resentment – is crucial for
developing effective long-term solutions.
The mention of "reshaped our understanding of security and conflict"
speaks to the profound impact international terrorism has had on
global affairs. It has blurred the lines between traditional warfare and
asymmetric conflict, challenging conventional notions of state
sovereignty and national security. The focus has shifted, in part, from
state-versus-state conflict to addressing threats posed by non-state
actors operating across borders. This requires new strategies, new
forms of international cooperation, and a re-evaluation of how we
define and respond to threats.
Finally, emphasizing that understanding international terrorism is not
just academic but a "crucial imperative" underscores the real-world
consequences of this phenomenon. It affects lives, economies, and the
very fabric of societies. To effectively mitigate the threat, we need in-
depth analysis, informed policy decisions, and collaborative action on
a global scale. Ignoring or oversimplifying the complexities of
international terrorism would be a disservice to global peace and
security in our interconnected world.

DEFINATIONS

FBI: Violent, criminal acts committed by individuals and/or groups

who are inspired by, or associated with, designated foreign terrorist
organizations or nations (state-sponsored)
Yonah Alexander: 'the use of violence against random civilian targets
in order to intimidate or to create generalised pervasive fear for the
purpose of achieving political goals.'
Alex P. Schmid: Terrorism is an anxiety-inspiring method of repeated
violent action, employed by clandestine individual groups or state
actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby-in
contrast to assassination-the direct targets of violence are not the main
hchosen randomly or selectively from a target population, and serve
as message generators. Threat and violence based communication
processes between terrorists' victims, and main targets are used to
manipulate the main target, turning it into a targeting of terror, a target
of demands, or a target of attention, depending on whether
intimidation, coercion or propaganda is primarily sought.
Brian Jenkins: The threat of violence, individual acts of violence or a
campaign of violence designed primarily to instil fear is terrorism.
Dobson: use of explosive devices used by the terrorists needs
appropriate training
Martha Crenshaw: terrorism is a means to accomplish certain
political objectives with international support.

HISTORY OF TERRORISM

The increasing indiscriminacy of industrialized weaponry from the

mid-nineteenth century onwards, exemplified by the lack of targeting
in events like the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (Walzer,
1977), influenced post-war revolutionary terrorists who adopted
irregular warfare tactics. This mirroring of state-level conflict tactics
is further conceptualized by Rapoport's "waves of terrorism," where
each wave (e.g., anarchist, anti-colonial) reflects dominant strategic
goals and often the military tactics of the time. The rise and fall of
these groups suggest terrorism is impacted by socio-political
conditions. In contrast, Parker and Sitter (2016) argue that terrorism
arises from four parallel and sometimes overlapping goal-oriented
strains: socialism, nationalism, religious extremism, or exclusionism,
rather than sequential waves. This academic discourse highlights the
ongoing debates in understanding and categorizing terrorist groups.
This module series does not endorse a specific view on the
motivational factors of non-state actors, leaving this for further
exploration.

Modern terrorism's roots lie in 19th-century revolutionary radicalism,

particularly anarchist and related groups influenced by thinkers like
Proudhon, Marx, and Bakunin. Disillusioned with traditional
methods, these groups adopted "propaganda by the deed," with
targeted assassination becoming a key tactic, exemplified by the
assassination of Czar Alexander II in 1881. This was seen as more
humane than civil war, targeting "oppressors" and maintaining lower
casualties (Morozov, 1880). Technological advancements like
dynamite and mass communication also fueled terrorism's rise,
enabling wider dissemination of violence and the rapid spread of
ideas. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914, carried
out by a Serbian nationalist, triggered World War I, whose "total war"
tactics and returning soldiers further shaped future terrorism. The 19th
century also saw states struggle with legal responses, like extradition
treaties often exempting "political offenses," highlighting the ongoing
difficulty in distinguishing terrorism from general crime.

The 1919 Versailles Treaty and the League of Nations mandate system
redistributed colonies and aimed to integrate minorities in new states,
but these protections didn't extend to minorities within the victorious
states themselves. The League Covenant prioritized international
security over the rule of law in potential conflicts.
The principle of self-determination, advocated by Lenin and initially
by Woodrow Wilson, was not explicitly included in the League
Covenant. While Wilson proposed guaranteeing minority rights in
new states, this wasn't fully adopted. Early on, the League grappled
with self-determination, as seen in the Aaland Islands dispute (1920),
where the League Council initially hesitated to establish a right to
secession but later suggested a plebiscite if Finland didn't provide
specific guarantees.
Despite ongoing terrorist assassinations in the 1930s, bilateral
agreements on suppressing terrorism emerged, and some extradition
treaties excluded attempts on heads of state from political offense
exemptions. The assassination of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia in
1934 led to Italy refusing extradition on political grounds. In
response, the League Council established a Committee of Experts that
drafted a Convention on Terrorism (1937), defining "acts of
terrorism" as criminal acts against a state intended to create terror.
However, the convention lacked grounding in "international" criminal
law, leaving prosecution and sentencing to individual states' domestic
laws. Ultimately, the outbreak of World War II prevented this
convention from entering into force.
The UN Security Council, through resolutions like 1267 (1999), has
designated the Taliban and Al-Qaida as terrorist organizations,
imposing sanctions. Resolution 1989 (2011) separated the
"Consolidated List" into lists for Al-Qaida and the Taliban. Resolution
2253 (2015) further included ISIL and Al Nusrah Front on the Al-
Qaida list.
Security Council reports indicate that while ISIL lost urban control,
it's transforming into a decentralized global terror network with
increasingly autonomous cells and affiliates, posing a threat through
"frustrated travelers," sympathizers, returnees, and relocators. Al-
Qaida's global network remains resilient, with AQAP serving as a key
communication hub. Affiliates of both groups are active in various
regions, exploiting instability. The flow of foreign terrorist fighters
has slowed, but the loss of ISIL territory may lead them to join other
groups or leave the region, prompting Security Council Resolution
2396 (2017) to address returnees.
Many states have national mechanisms to implement UN sanctions
lists against designated terrorist groups. Security Council Resolution
1373 (2001) mandates states to freeze terrorist assets and prevent
financial support. Consequently, many nations have legal frameworks
for designating terrorists based on UN lists or for national/multilateral
purposes. However, these designation mechanisms can raise
implementation challenges and rights-based concerns, as highlighted
in the Kadi and Al Barakaat International Foundation v. Council and
Commission case [2008].

TYPES OF TERRORISM

1. Unorganized Terrorism:
• This refers to acts of terrorism carried out by individuals or very
small, loosely connected groups without a significant command
structure or external support.
• Motivations can be highly personal, ideological, or a mix.
• Actions are often spontaneous or planned on a very small scale.
• It can be difficult to detect and prevent due to the lack of a
formal organization.
• Example: A lone individual inspired by extremist ideology
carrying out an attack.
2. Organized Terrorism:
• This involves terrorist acts perpetrated by structured groups with
a clear hierarchy, defined roles, resources (financial, logistical,
personnel), and strategic goals.
• These organizations often have a political or ideological agenda
and plan attacks more deliberately and strategically.
• They may have recruitment processes, training camps, and
communication networks.
• Examples: Groups like Al-Qaeda, ISIS (when it had a more
centralized structure), and the Taliban (as an organized insurgent
and terrorist group).
3. State-Sponsored Terrorism:
 • This occurs when a state directly supports or sponsors terrorist
groups. This support can take various forms:
o Funding: Providing financial resources.
o Training: Offering military or tactical instruction.
o Weapons and Logistics: Supplying arms, equipment, and
operational support.
o Intelligence Sharing: Providing information to aid
terrorist activities.
o Safe Haven: Allowing terrorist groups to operate within
their borders.
• States often use these groups as proxies to achieve foreign
policy objectives without direct military involvement.
• Examples: Historically, states have been accused of sponsoring
various militant groups in other countries. The provided text
mentions the US and India engaging in such activities in the
past.
4. Islamic Terrorism (or Islamist Terrorism/Jihadi Terrorism):
• This term refers to terrorist acts committed by individuals and
groups who profess to act in the name of Islam.
• These groups often adhere to fundamentalist or extremist
interpretations of Islamic texts and seek to achieve political or
religious goals, such as establishing a global caliphate or
enforcing a strict interpretation of Sharia law.
• It's crucial to understand that the vast majority of Muslims
worldwide do not support terrorism, and these acts are carried
out by a small minority who distort and misinterpret Islamic
teachings.
• Examples: Al-Qaeda, ISIS, Boko Haram, Al-Shabaab are
groups that have been identified as engaging in "Islamic
terrorism.
Issues of Resources:
• Economic Grievances: Competition for scarce resources
(water, land, minerals, oil, etc.) can fuel local and regional
conflicts, creating an environment where extremist ideologies
and violence can take root. Groups may exploit these
grievances, arguing that violence is necessary to secure what
they believe is rightfully theirs or to address perceived economic
injustice.
• Funding Terrorism: Access to and control over resources (legal
or illegal) are crucial for terrorist organizations to finance their
operations, recruit members, procure weapons, and sustain
themselves. This can involve illicit activities like drug
trafficking, kidnapping for ransom, extortion, and exploiting
natural resources in areas they control.
• Resource as a Target: Critical infrastructure related to
resources (pipelines, energy plants, water supplies) can become
targets for terrorist attacks, aiming to disrupt economies, sow
fear, and pressure governments.
2. Religion:
• Religious Extremism: While the vast majority of religious
adherents are peaceful, extremist interpretations of religious
texts and doctrines can be used to justify violence and terrorism.
These interpretations often involve rigid worldviews, the
demonization of "outsiders," and the belief in a divinely
mandated duty to wage "holy war" or establish a specific
religious order.
• Sectarian Conflict: Disputes and historical grievances between
different religious sects within a region or country can be
exploited by terrorist groups to mobilize support, incite
violence, and pursue sectarian agendas.
• Religion as Identity and Mobilization: Religion can be a
powerful source of identity and social cohesion. Terrorist groups
may leverage religious identity to recruit members, build
 solidarity, and frame their struggle in sacred terms, lending it a
sense of ultimate importance and justification.
• Political Goals Framed Religiously: Even when the underlying
goals are political (e.g., establishing a theocratic state, achieving
self-determination), terrorist groups may frame their objectives
in religious terms to gain legitimacy and broader appeal among
religiously inclined populations.
3. Cultural Claims:
• Cultural Identity and Marginalization: Feelings of cultural
marginalization, discrimination, or the perceived threat to a
group's cultural identity can be exploited by terrorist
organizations. They may argue that violence is necessary to
preserve their culture, language, traditions, or way of life against
perceived oppression or assimilation.
• Clash of Civilizations Narrative: Extremist groups sometimes
subscribe to a narrative of an inevitable clash between different
cultures or civilizations, using this to justify violence against
those perceived as belonging to a hostile cultural group.
• Cultural Heritage as a Target: Terrorist groups may
deliberately target cultural sites, artifacts, or practices as a way
to undermine the identity of a perceived enemy, erase history, or
provoke a reaction.
• Cultural Norms and Justification of Violence: In some
contexts, specific cultural norms or historical narratives might
be invoked to legitimize or excuse violence in pursuit of certain
goals.
4. Territorial Claims:
• Separatism and Self-Determination: Disputes over territory
and the desire for self-determination or the creation of an
independent state are significant drivers of terrorism in many
parts of the world. Groups may resort to violence to achieve
territorial control, expel perceived occupiers, or establish their
own sovereignty.
 • Border Disputes: Contested borders between states can create
instability and provide opportunities for terrorist groups to
operate in ungoverned spaces or to exploit tensions between the
involved nations.
• Irredentism: The desire to reclaim territory historically or
culturally linked to a particular group or state can fuel conflict
and terrorism.
• Control of Strategic Territory: Control over strategically
important land (e.g., with valuable resources, key transportation
routes) can be a major objective for terrorist groups, leading to
violence and territorial disputes.
Interconnectedness:
It's crucial to recognize that these issues are often interconnected and
mutually reinforcing. For example:
• A territorial dispute might be framed in religious or cultural
terms.
• Competition for resources can exacerbate existing ethnic or
religious tensions.
• Feelings of cultural marginalization can be exploited by
religiously motivated extremist groups.
Understanding the complex interplay of resources, religion, cultural
claims, and territorial claims is essential for analyzing the root causes
of terrorism and developing effective counter-terrorism strategies.
Addressing these underlying issues, rather than solely focusing on
security measures, is often crucial for achieving long-term stability
and peace.