Agricultural Entomology
SAFS-BIOL 3240H
David Beresford
final lecture and review
tiger moth (Arciidae) Grammia quenseli is an arctic/alpine
species. I am aware of only two other records from Ontario
for this species (Schmidt, pers. comm. to DB.), one
1 each
from Cape Henrietta Maria and Shagamu River. moth, third
record of this species for Ontario.
SAFS-3240H-A (2025WI: PTBO)
Date: Wednesday, April 16, 2025 - 3:00pm
Location: ENW 114
Duration: 2 hours
REVIEW
black fly outbreaks can kill cattle,
killed 1,100 cattle in western
Canada from 1944 to 48
bluetongue virus, cattle disease,
carried by Culicoides spp. (no-
see-ums)
N America $125 million/year loss
horn fly, costs $1 billion/year in
weight loss of beef and dairy
cattle
cost of diamondback moth
management US$4 billion-
US$5 billion for N America
(pest of broccoli, mustard, etc)
REVIEW
examples
– if an insect with a developmental threshold of 6 C is held
for 48 hours at 8 C, it has been held for 4 degree days
(written as 4DD6)
– if an egg requires 18 degree days > 10 C before hatching
this will take:
• 9 days at 12 C
• 6 days at 13 C
• 2 days at 19 C
• or 1 day at 28 C
5
REVIEW
7
6
5
o
C
4 b
3
2
a
1 d
c
0
midnight
midnight
noon
triangle area = ½ (base x height)
add areas of a, b, c, d to obtain total
a ½ (0.5 x 6) = 1.5
b ½ (0.5 x 4) = 1
c 1 x 0.5 = 0.5
d 3 x 0.5 = 1.5
total DD0 = 4.5
6
REVIEW
Know the life history, but you are not going to need identifications
common name order life history
beetles Coleoptera includes weevils holometabolous
moths and butterflies: Lepidoptera holometabolous
flies: Diptera holometabolous
includes pollinators,
beneficials, and pests
bugs (2 orders): Homoptera aphids, hoppers hemimetabolous
Hemiptera leaf bugs, seed bugs hemimetabolous
often put together as the Heteroptera
wasps, bees, ants, sawflies Hymenoptera holometabolous
earwigs: Dermaptera hemimetabolous
grasshoppers: Orthoptera hemimetabolous
springtails: Collembola ametabolous
fleas: Siphonaptera holometabolous
mites: Class Arachnida, subclass Acari
7
black fly outbreaks can kill cattle,
killed 1,100 cattle in western
Canada from 1944 to 48
bluetongue virus, cattle disease,
carried by Culicoides spp. (no-
see-ums)
N America $125 million/year loss
horn fly, costs $1 billion/year in
weight loss of beef and dairy
cattle
cost of diamondback moth
management US$4 billion-
US$5 billion for N America
(pest of broccoli, mustard, etc)
rice, post harvest loss due to
insects is up to 25%
damage occurs in first few
months of storage, up to 50%
for 6 months storage
weevils on rice grains
http://agridr.in/
Direct losses due to pests
consumption
loss of weight,
loss of nutrients,
lower germination,
reduced grade
lower market value
Contamination
Damage to structures or containers
Indirect losses
wet grain heating
bacteria
fungi
alflatoxins
parasites of humans
control and application costs
excessive pesticide residues
loss of consumer confidence
complex habitats produce high diversity,
disturbed habitats/intensive agricultural habitats become less complex,
common species are more abundant, more species are rare, middle groups disappear
undisturbed disturbed
specialists rare species, habitat specialists specialists
uncommon but not rare, predators and
predators and pollinators
pollinators pollinators and predators
pests woodland to modern farm pests
common species often pests
allowing regions to naturalize brings back complex habitats,
increases natural predators of pests,
pest numbers drop, rare species continue or re-establish
undisturbed disturbed
specialists rare species, habitat specialists specialists
uncommon but not rare, predators and
predators and pollinators
pollinators pollinators and predators
modern farm with some land returned to
wooded, wetland, waste spaces OR
pests farm with non-farmed habitat or pests
infrastructure
common species often pests
life history
holometabolous
eggs and larval stages differ from adult stage
identification based on morphological
features (ie the phenotype)
14
simple or hemimetabolous
metamorphosis
complex or holometabolous
metamorphosis
15
http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/
corn borer
potato beetle
16
http://entomology.unl.edu/ecb/ecb1.htm#Item1
development
simple, or ametabolous development
silverfish, collembola, egg, immature look like adults, several moults
incomplete or hemimetabolous metamorphosis: larvae similar to adults, but missing
structures (wings etc) earwigs
most insects have complete or holometabolous metamorphosis
egg, distinct immature stage (called maggots for flies
rove beetle grub
grubs for beetles), pupae, adult www.pbase.com
- beetle grubs go through several (various numbers)
of moults or instars
- fly maggots have three distinct instars silphidae pupae
www.pansphoto.com
instar stages identified by spiracles
keys exist for 3rd instar stages, some 2nd, but very few egg or 1st instar stages
instar stages identified by posterior parried spiracles:
each with 1 opening, 2 openings or 3 openings (1, 2, 3 instars) 17
eggs
https://extension.entm.purdue.ed
u/fieldcropsipm/insects/western-
bean-cutworm.php caterpillar eggs on alders http://www.treeblog.co.uk/viewpost.php?id=191
mosquito egg raft
Calliphoridae egg
(blow fly)
18
degree days, growing days, heat units all the same thing
1 degree C above some temperature, for 24 hours, is 1 degree day C OR 24 degree hours.
In Fahrenheit, the same only 1 degree days F
temp at 6 C for 1 day, threshold is 5, this is 1ADD5, (also written as 1dd5 , 1 ADD5, 1dd5 C etc.
it is not standardized)
temp at 6 C for 1 day, threshold is 2, this is 4ADD2
temp at 6 C for 1 day, threshold is 0, this is 6ADD0
temp at 6 C for 2 days, threshold is 0, this is 12ADD0 (2 * 6)
temp at 6 C for 2.5 day, threshold is 0, this is 15ADD0 (2.5 * 6)
it is a 2 dimensional measurement, length (time) X width (temp) to get area: time temp,
which is day degrees OR degree days (these are the same)
19
each cell is 1 cm by 1 cm temp days
in each block the red section is 18 cm2 12
2 x 9 = 18 cm2 11
3 x 6 = 18 cm2 1312
11
19
18
17
9 x 2 = 18 cm2 16
15
14
13
12
11
` 28
27
26
25
24
23
22
18 x 1 = 18 cm2 21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
20
each cell is 1 day by 1 degree C temp days
developmental threshold of 10 C 12
in each block the red section is 18 ADD10
2 x 9 = 18 ADD10 11
13
3 x 6 = 18 ADD10 12
11
19
18
17
9 x 2 = 18 ADD10 16
15
14
13
12
11
` 28
27
26
25
24
23
22
18 x 1 = 18 ADD10 21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
21
if an egg requires 18 degree days > 10 C temp days
before hatching this will take: 12
10o C 11
9 days at 12 C 13
12
11
10o C
19
6 days at 13 C 18
17
16
15
14
2 days at 19 C 13
12
11
10o C
28
27
26
25
1 day at 28 C 24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
10o C 11
22
Relating Degree-Day Accumulations to Calendar Dates: Alfalfa Weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Egg
Hatch in the North Central United States
ROBERT K. D. PETERSON AND STEVEN J. MEYER Environ.Entomol.24(6): 1404-1407 (1995)
93 cumulative degree days % probability of occurrence
23
insect populations
300 1000
250
ln population
200 100
population
150
100
10
50
1
0
0 50 100
0 50 100
time time
24
Modelling populations
Leslie matrices
The basic Leslie matrix has the following form:
F1 F2 F3 F4
A= P1 0 0 0
0 P2 0 0
0 0 P3 0
- F is fecundity per insect and P is the probability of survival per time step
- life cycle [loop diagram] corresponds to parts of the Leslie matrix model
- transitions between stages given by arrows, fecundity is birth pulses at the beginning
of each stage (rather than continuous reproduction), with survival odds from one
stage to the next
1 2 3 4
25
Modelling populations
Consider an insect with only 3 stages of egg, larvae, and adult, the matrix will have the
form
F1 F2 F3
A= P1 0 0
1 2 3
0 P2 0
and the life cycle or loop diagram will be:
Suppose adults lay one set of 12 eggs, the odds of surviving are 50% from egg to larvae,
25% from larvae to adult, and 0% living to lay a second set of eggs (eg
grasshoppers). We decide to model only females, and further assume that stages are
of equal duration in terms of degree days.
F = 12
The life cycle diagram is:
and matrix model is:
0 0 12
A= 0.5 0 0 egg P1 = .5 larvae P2 = .25 adult
0 0.25 0
26
Modelling populations
the model Nt+1 = λ Nt can be re-written as Nt+1 = A Nt
where A is the Leslie matrix. Why is this better? The Leslie matrix allows us to project
the population of the different developmental stages, whereas λ and/or r only can
be used to give predictions about the total population, ie.
population vector/time step
transition matrix initial 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 12 eggs 0 12 0 0 24
18 0 00
A = .5 0 0 larvae 0 0 6 0 00 12
9 00
0 .25 0 adults 1 0 0 2
1.5 00 0 3
2.25
total population 1 12 6 1.5
2 18
24 9
12 03
total adult population 1 0 0 1.5
2 0 00 2.5
3
27
dispersal
North America: weather patterns are predictable, seasonal insect dispersal rides
these patterns
a falling air column creates high pressure insects deposited
a rising air column creates low pressure insects drawn upwards
a continental pattern
– constant series of low and high pressure systems drawn across from west
to east
– fluctuating in a north/south line
28
dispersal
low pressure systems (updrafts) arise at intersection of two frontal systems:
cold northern air meets warm southern air mass
at intersection, warm air rides up over top of cold air
creates updraft low pressure system
- carries insects (weed seeds,
bacteria, ballooning spiders,
mites, spiders, pollutants,
chemical droplets etc.)
into atmosphere
- vertical air column spirals
a cyclone, or
cyclonic weather system
29
dispersal
on map, indicates spiral movement of low pressure system
insects taken up all from central US and carried into Ontario and eastern Canada
[note symbols used for warm and cold fronts]
cold front warm front
high high high
L L
L
high high high
30
dispersal
dots are insects or other airborne organisms
shows region where they are most clustered
advancing cold front
acts as a plough
insects pushed upward
in warm air
receding cold front
acts as a drag
insects drawn along
receding line
direction arrow
31
dispersal
local weather patterns L
and insect dispersal
land vs water L
night vs day
varying albedos (surface ability to
reflect solar radiation)
principle: surfaces warm up at
different rates
warm air rises
localized low pressures L
local wind patterns
red area is high absorption of solar
radiation, air temperatures warm
(asphalt, ploughed fields,
buildings)
green area has low absorption of L
radiation, air temperatures cool
(vegetation, water, forests)
32
pesticides: how to alter K . . .
pesticide applied
10000
1000
numbers
100 pushes population back
to fastest growth rate!
repeated applications maintain
10
population at rapid growth
1
0 20 40 60
years 33
…how to grow pests! (and kill crops at the same time, just change K!)
by adding pesticides!
eg California red scale
– infestation
produced by light
application each DDT tree
month with DDT
– no infestation on
unsprayed trees
no DDT
economic injury level
34
Pacific mite
carbaryl sprayed plots
– after 4 months
– spraying stopped treated
due to death of
vines.
30
untreated
sprayed with TEPP not treated
mean bollworms per cage
10 20
bollworms induced on cotton plants
by spraying with TEPP
two years data
0
1966 1967 35
T. Aksit et al. (2007) Phytoparasitica 35(4):357-366
Effect of Temperature and Photoperiod on Development
and Fecundity of an Acarophagous Ladybird Beetle,
Stethorus gilvifrons
Coleoptera L Coccinellidae,
ladybird beetle Stethorus gilvifrons Mulsant,
development rate egg 75.75 degree-days ADD7.24C)
egg to adult 147.1 for hatching
DD10.9C 124 egg to adult required 256.41 ADD8.33C
eggs/female east spider mites on strawberries
ladybird species in general lay 100 to 200 eggs per
female
36
Bull Entomol Res. 2001 Dec;91(6):477-87. Biological Control
Development, survival and reproduction of black citrus aphid, Volume 60, Issue 2, February 2012, Pages 113–118
Toxoptera aurantii (Hemiptera: Aphididae), as a function of Biology and thermal requirements of Chrysoperla genanigra (Neuroptera:
temperature. Chrysopidae) reared on Sitotroga cerealella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) eggs
Wang JJ1, Tsai JH. Bezerra et al.
black citrus aphid Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer Chrysoperla genanigra Freitas
de Fonscolombe) common green lacewing
immature development 129.9 ADD3.8C egg to adult 336.7 ADD10.8C
live birth, all female clones 992.7 eggs/female lifetime.
37
http://www.stopbmsb.org/managi
ng-bmsb/biological-control/
38
Lice
chicken body louse
Menacanthus, stramineus
on vent area, breast, thigh, found in winter, feed on skin, chewing mouthparts, also
bloodfeed
complete life cycle on a single bird, disrupts sleep, common if birds become stressed.
Highest on birds with injured beaks OR with trimmed beaks
39
Lice
beaks used to defend against lice
why beaks are trimmed?
tendency to attack each other
if one shows weakness, others will
eviscerate it
often blamed on high density,
or lack of free range activity
recall perils of free range:
NB: everyone needs to learn this fact personally,
we all start thinking that there is no need to trim beaks
40
other pollinators include native
bees eg
bumble bees
solitary bees (sweat bees)
flies such as Pollenia
Syrphidae
Muscidae
horse flies and deer flies
mosquitoes
beetles
butterflies
moths
41
alternative methods of pest management, and seeing insect in agricultural systems
farming the soil vs mining the soil:
healthy vigorous soil requires lots of
insects and other arthropods
earthworms contribute to pest
control and disease control, burying
seeds in pasture, turning over the soil,
aerating the soil
apple leaves covered in scab, a fungus
Venturia inaequalis
in fall, leaves drop and dry out
spores are liberated by rain drops in
spring and blow onto new leaves in
spring after snowmelt
earthworms (L. terrestris) pull leaves
under the soil killing the fungus
need to have healthy soil for this to
occur
pesticides kill earthworms, making soil
susceptible to wireworm infestations
42
labelling
printed in black, either by computer or hand printed (preferably with archivists pens e.g. from an artists
shop) be consistent
location and collector label (the most important, this information cannot be determined from the
specimen itself): place of capture, able to be found on a small scale map, must be clear to anyone
unfamiliar with region, can give latitude and longitude co-ordinates if in an isolated area
Warsaw, Dummer Twp, Ont.
or
Cavan bog, 5km W of Peterborough, Ont.
date of capture or emergence (reared specimens):
10/VI/04 or 10 June ’04
not 10/06/04 could be mistaken for October, 2004
collector: Philippa Beresford
ecological labels, includes habitat and life history information that the collector identifies as important:
e.g. host animal or plant, rearing information, conditions of capture (netted, pitfall trap, malaise trap,
night, day, weather conditions, emerged from pupae collected from grass clippings under lawnmower
on Solidago canadensis flower etc.
spreadsheet labels black
lines around each cell, 6 pt
font, Arial
