FOUNDATION, CONSOLIDATION AND EXPANSION OF MUGHAL

EMPIRE:

INTRODUCTION:

The Mughal dynasty was founded by Babur, a ruler of Fergana province, presently situated in
Afghanistan. Through the Mughal Emperor, the Indian subcontinent saw a new emergence of
Muslim culture in India. The Mughal Dynasty was the early Islamic period in the Indian
subcontinent. Through the Mughal Dynasty, real and strong Muslim dominance was established
in India. Through the great kings of this dynasty, the Indian culture, sculpture and religion were
immensely affected in various aspects. The Mughal emperor was the largest and greatest emperor
in medieval India. The Mughal emperor got the most dominant political supremacy by late 1600.
The Mughal Empire was very significant in bringing the entire Indian subcontinent under one
domain. The Mughal Dynasty was widely known for its cultural, religious and architectural
achievements. The well-organized army, government and economy made the Mughal Empire one
of the greatest and most powerful empires in India. During the reign of Akbar, Jahangir and
Shahjahan, the architecture was the blending of Hindu and Islamic architecture. The Mughals
modernized the military system with the introduction of gunpowder and cannons. They also
introduced the Mansabdari system and the Zamindari system. The Mughals served a very
important role in preventing foreign invasions on a large scale.
FOUNDATION:
Babur
The foundation of the empire was laid in 1526 by Zahir al-Din Muhammad Babur, a Chagatai
Turk (so called because his ancestral homeland, the country north of the Amu Darya [Oxus
River] in Central Asia, was the heritage of Chagatai, the second son of Genghis Khan). Babur
was a fifth-generation descendant of Timur on the side of his father and a 14th-generation
descendant of Genghis Khan. His idea of conquering India was inspired, to begin with, by the
story of the exploits of Timur, who had invaded the subcontinent in 1398. Babur inherited his
father’s principality in Fergana at a young age, in 1494. Soon he was literally a fugitive, in the
midst of both an internecine fight among the Timurids and a struggle between them and the
rising Uzbeks over the erstwhile Timurid empire in the region.
Conquest of Hindustan
Having secured the Punjab, Babur advanced toward Delhi, garnering support from many Delhi
nobles. He routed two advance parties of Ibrahim Lodi’s troops and met the sultan’s main army
at Panipat. The Afghans fought bravely, but they had never faced new artillery, and their frontal
attack was no answer to Babur’s superior arrangement of the battle line. Babur’s knowledge of
western and Central Asian war tactics and his brilliant leadership proved decisive in his victory.
By April 1526 he was in control of Delhi and Agra and held the keys to conquer Hindustan.
Babur, however, had yet to encounter any of the several Afghans who held important towns in
what is now eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and who were backed by the sultan of Bengal in the
east and the Rajput’s on the southern borders. The Rajput’s under Rana
Sanga of Mewar threatened to revive their power in northern India. Babur assigned the
unconquered territories to his nobles and led an expedition himself against the rana in person. He
crushed the rana’s forces at Khanua, near Fatehpur Sikri (March 1527), once again by means of
the skillful positioning of troops. Babur then continued his campaigns to subjugate the Rajput’s
of Chander.
HUMAYUN RULE:
Humayun inherited the hope rather than the fact of empire, because the Afghans and Rajput’s
were merely restrained but not reconciled to Mughal supremacy by the Mughal victories at
Panipat (1526), Khanua (1527), and the Ghaghara (1529). Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, encouraged
by Afghan and Mughal émigrés, challenged the Mughals in Rajasthan, and, although Humayun
occupied Gujarat in 1535, the danger there ended only with Bahadur’s death in 1537.
Meanwhile, an Afghan soldier of fortune, Sher Shah of Sur, had consolidated his power
in Bihar and Bengal. He defeated Humayun at Chausa in 1539 and at Kannauj in 1540, expelling
him from India.
Humayun had no answer to the political and military skill of Sher Shah and had to fight
simultaneously on the southern borders to check the sultan of Gujarat, a refuge of the rebel
Mughals. Humayun’s failure, however, was attributable to inherent flaws in the early Mughal
political organization. The armed clans of his nobility owed their first allegiance to their
respective chiefs. These chiefs, together with almost all the male members of the royal family,
had a claim to sovereignty. There was thus always a lurking fear of the emergence of another
center of power, at least under one or the other of his brothers. Humayun also fought against the
heavy odds of his opponents’ rapport with the locality.
SHER SHAH SURI:
During Humayun’s exile Sher Shah established a vast and powerful empire and strengthened it
with a wise system of administration. He carried out a new and equitable revenue settlement,
greatly improved the administration of the districts and the parganas (groups of villages),
reformed the currency, encouraged trade and commerce, improved communication, and
administered impartial justice.
Sher Shah died during the siege of Kalinjar (May 1545) and was succeeded by his son Islam
Shah (ruled 1545–53). Islam Shah, preeminently a soldier, was less successful as a ruler than his
father. Palace intrigues and insurrections marred his reign. On his death his young son, Firoz,
came to the Sur throne but was murdered by his own maternal uncle, and subsequently the
empire fractured into several parts.
CONSOLIDATION:
AKBAR:
Within a few months of Humayun’s death, his governors lost several important cities and
regions, including Delhi itself, to Hemu, a Hindu minister who had claimed the throne for
himself. Humayun’s son Akbar (reigned 1556–1605), under the guidance of the regent Bayram
Khan, defeated Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat (1556), which commanded the route to
Delhi, and thereby turned the tide in Hindustan to the Mughal dynasty’s favor.
Although Akbar inherited an empire in shambles, he proved an extremely capable ruler. His
expansion and absorption of vast territories established an empire across northern and parts of
central India; at his death in 1605 the empire extended from Afghanistan to the Bay of
Bengal and southward to what is now Gujarat state and the northern Deccan region (peninsular
India). The political, administrative, and military structures that he created to govern the empire
were the chief factor behind its continued survival for another century and a half.
One of the notable features of Akbar’s government was the extent of Hindu, and
particularly Rajput, participation. Rajput princes attained the highest ranks, as generals and as
provincial governors, in the Mughal service. Discrimination against non-Muslims was reduced
by abolishing the taxation of pilgrims and the tax payable by non-Muslims (jizyah) in lieu
of military service. Yet Akbar was far more successful than any previous Muslim ruler in
winning the cooperation of Hindus at all levels in his administration. The further expansion of
his territories gave them fresh opportunities.
In addition to annulling the jizyah, he abolished the practice of forcibly converting prisoners of
war to Islam and encouraged Hindus as his principal confidants and policy makers. To legitimize
his nonsectarian policies, he issued in 1579 a public edict (maḥẓar) declaring his right to be the
supreme arbiter in Muslim religious matters—above the body of Muslim religious scholars and
jurists, whom Akbar had come to consider as shallow.
Toward the end of his reign, Akbar embarked on a fresh round of conquests. The Kashmir region
was subjugated in 1586, Sindh in 1591, and Kandahar (Afghanistan) in 1595. Mughal troops
now moved south of the Vindhya Range into the Deccan. By 1601 Khandesh, Berar, and part
of Ahmednagar had been added to Akbar’s empire. His last years were troubled by the rebellious
behavior of his son Prince Salim (later the emperor Jahangir), who was eager for power.
JAHANGIR :
Akbar’s son Jahangir (reigned 1605–27) continued both his father’s administrative system and
his tolerant policy toward Hinduism. His most significant achievement in his own right was
the cessation of the conflict with Mewar, a Rajput principality that had eluded Akbar’s
subjugation. Its rana accepted Jahangir as suzerain but retained greater independence than the
other principalities. Campaigns against Ahmednagar, initiated under Akbar’s rule, were
continued fitfully, with Mughal arms and diplomacy often thwarted by its able leader Malik
Ambar (Anbar), a formerly enslaved Abyssinian (Ḥabshī) who had attained high military rank. In
1617 and 1621, however, Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahān) concluded apparently victorious
peace treaties. Jahangir, like his father, was not a strict Sunni Muslim; he allowed, for example,
the Jesuits to dispute publicly with Muslim ʿulamāʾ (theologians) and to make converts. After
1611 Jahangir accepted the influence of his Persian wife, Mehr al-Nesāʾ (Nur Jahan); her father,
Itimad al-Dawah; and her brother Asaf Khan. Together with Prince Khurram, that clique
dominated politics until 1622. Thereafter, Jahangir’s declining years were darkened by
a breach between Nur Jahan and Prince Khurram, who rebelled openly between 1622 and 1625.
In 1626 Jahangir was temporarily placed under duress by Mahābat Khan, another rival of Nur
Jahan’s group. Jahangir died while traveling from Kashmir to Lahore.
EXPANSION:
Akbar through a systematic policy started the task of expanding his Empire. It must be noted that
the major expansion of Mughal Empire took place during the reign of Akbar. During the reigns
of his successors (Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb), very little was added in terms of
territory. The main additions in the later period were made during Aurangzeb's reign in South
India and North-East (Assam).
North and Central India
The first expedition was sent to capture Gwalior and Jaunpur in 1559-60. After a brief war, Ram
Shah surrendered the Gwalior fort. Khan Zaman was sent to Jaunpur ruled by Afghans who were
defeated easily and it was annexed to the Mughal Empire. Malwa in central India was ruled by
Baz Bahadur. Adham Khan and others led the expedition against Malwa. Baz Bahadur was
defeated and fled towards Berhampur. Next, Garh Katanga or Gondwana, an independent state in
central India ruled by Rani Durgawati, widow of Dalpat Shah, was conquered in 1564. Later, in
1567, Akbar handed over the kingdom to Chandra Shah, the brother of Dalpat Shah.
Western India Conquest of Rajputana:
Akbar realized that to have a stable Empire, he must subjugate the large tracts under Rajput
kings in the neighboring region of Rajputana. A calculated policy was ' devised not only to
conquer these areas but turn their rulers into allies. Here we will not go into the details of Akbar's
policy towards the Rajput kings. You would study the details ‘in Unit 11 of Block 3. Akbar with
the exception of Chittoor’s Rana Pratap, managed to secure the allegiance of all the Rajput
kingdoms. A large number of them Were absorbed in Mughal nobility and helped Akbar in
expanding and consolidating the Mughal Empire.
Conquest of Gujarat:
 Having consolidated his position in Central India and Rajputana, Akbar turned towards Gujarat
in 1572. After Humayun's withdrawal, Gujarat was no longer a unified kingdom. There were
various Jarring principalities. Gujarat, apart from being a fertile region, had a number of busy
pons and thriving commercial centers. Sultan Muzaffer Shah I 11 was the nominal king claiming
overlordship over 7 warring principalities. One of the pence’s, Itimad Khan, had invited Akbar to
come and conquer it. Akbar himself marched to Ahmedabad. The town was captured without any
serious resistance. Surat with a strong fortress offered some resistance but was also captured. In a
short time, most of the principalities of Gujarat were subdued.
Eastern India:
In 1574, Akbar along with Minim Khan Khan-i Khanan marched towards Bihar. In a short’ time,
Hajipur 2nd Patna were captured and Daud fled towards Garhi. After a brief stay Akbar returned.
Mun'im Khan and Raja Todar Ma1 continued to chase Daud who later submitted to the Mughals.
After a short time, he again rebelled and was finally killed by the Mughal forces under Khan-i
Jahan and Gaur (Bengal) was taken. This ended the in 1 pendant rule of Bengal in 1576 which
had lasted with few interruptions, for almost two centuries. Parts of Orissa were still under some
Afghan Chiefs. Around 1592, Mansingh brought the whole of Orissa under the Mughal rule.
Deccan and South:
Akbar had started taking interest in Deccan states of Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golkonda after
the conquest of Gujarat and Malwa. The earlier contacts were limited to, the visits of emissaries
or casual contacts. After 1590, Akbar started a planned Deccan policy to bring these states under
Mughal control. Around this time, the Deccan states were facing internal strife and regular
conflicts. In 1591, Akbar sent a few missions to the Deccan states asking them to accept Mughal
sovereignty. Faiz was sent to Asir and Berhampur (Khandesh), Khwaja Aminuddin to
Ahrnednagar, Mir Mohammad Amin Mashadi to Bijapur, and Mirza Ma'sud to ~olkmda 3y 1593
all the missions returned without any success. It was reported that only E hja Ali Khan, the ruler
of Khandesh, was favourably inclined towards the Mughals.
Annexation of Assam:
The major success of the Mughals in the north-east was annexation of Assam. In 1661 Mir
Jumla, the governor of Bengal invaded the Ahom kingdom. Mir Jumla had 12,000 cavalry, 30000
soldiers and a fleet of bogs with guns under his demand'. The Ahom resistance was very feeble.
Mir Jumla succeeded in capturing Kanpur the capital of Ahom kingdom. The king fled from the
kingdom. In early 1663, the Swargdeo (heavenly king) surrendered peace was established.
Assam was annexed and Mughal officers were appointed. Mir Jumla died in 1663. Another
notable achievement in north-east was capture of Chatgaon in 1664 under Shaista Khan the new
governor of Bengal.
DECLINE OF MUGHAL EMPIRE:
The decline of the Mughal Empire began after Aurangzeb’s death in 1707. His successors were
weak and lacked the leadership to maintain control. Aurangzeb’s religious intolerance and costly
Deccan campaigns weakened the empire’s finances and alienated groups like the Rajputs,
Marathas, and Sikhs, who rose in rebellion. Regional powers such as Hyderabad, Bengal, and
Awadh asserted independence, reducing central authority.
Invasions by Nadir Shah in 1739 and Ahmad Shah Abdali further destabilized the empire, with
Delhi being plundered. The economy declined due to over-taxation, corruption, and declining
agricultural productivity. Meanwhile, European trading companies, especially the British East
India Company, gained power through battles like Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764).
By the 19th century, the Mughal emperor had become a mere figurehead. After the 1857 Revolt,
the British exiled the last emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, officially ending the Mughal Empire.
Conclusion:
The Mughal Empire, founded by Babur in 1526, grew into one of the most powerful empires in
Indian history through strategic warfare, strong administration, and cultural integration. Under
rulers like Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan, the empire expanded territorially and was
consolidated through policies of religious tolerance, efficient governance, and economic
prosperity. This period laid the foundation for a rich legacy in art, architecture, and
administration that shaped the subcontinent for centuries. However, the later rulers struggled to
maintain this vast structure, and growing internal weaknesses, combined with regional revolts
and foreign interventions, gradually eroded its strength. While the Mughal legacy continues to
influence Indian culture and heritage, its decline marked a significant turning point, paving the
way for British colonial dominance.