Chapter IV

Carpentry
Lesson 1
Carpentry; Its Definition, History and Tools

The following are some reminders in using this module:

1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of the module. Use a separate sheet of paper
in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer Pretest before moving on to the other activities included in the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Rubrics are given as your guide in doing the activities.
5. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your answers.

At the end if this module, you are expected to;

a. define carpentry; it’s purpose and importance.

b. discuss the significant development of carpentry from ancient to modern time.
c. classify types of carpentry tools according to functions.

PRETEST
Directions: Answer the following in a ½ sheet of yellow paper.

1. Object used as parts or components of projects.

A. Tools C. Equipment
B. Materials D. Hardware

2. Implements manipulated by the hand to facilitate carpentry works.

A. Tools C. Equipment
B. Materials D. Hardware

3. List 3 familiar carpentry tools in your house.

4. List 3 construction materials used in your house.
5. List 3 hardware used in your house.

Let’s Get Down to the Business

Carpentry is a skilled trade and a craft in which the primary work performed is the cutting, shaping and installation
of building materials during the construction of buildings, ships, timber bridges, concrete formwork, etc. Carpenters
traditionally worked with natural wood and did rougher work such as framing, but today many other materials are also used
and sometimes the finer trades of cabinetmaking and furniture building are considered carpentry. In the United States, 98.5%
of carpenters are male, and it was the fourth most male-dominated occupation in the country in 1999. In 2006 in the United
States, there were about 1.5 million carpentry positions. Carpenters are usually the first tradesmen on a job and the last to
leave. Carpenters normally framed post-and-beam buildings until the end of the 19th century; now this old-fashioned carpentry
is called timber framing. Carpenters learn this trade by being employed through an apprenticeship training—normally 4 years
—and qualify by successfully completing that country's competence test in places such as the United Kingdom, the United
States, Canada, Switzerland, Australia and South Africa. It is also common that the skill can be learned by gaining work
experience other than a formal training program, which may be the case in many places.

Types of carpentry

While the term carpenter is used to refer to anyone that works with wood, there are actually different types of
carpentry. So what does a carpenter do? The two main types of carpentry include:

Rough carpentry
Rough carpentry is all work that doesn't require a neat finish as it will be covered up by walls or other items.
Structural carpentry is the most common type of rough carpentry and these carpenters are very skilled in quickly erecting the
structural components of a building, such as beams, posts and rafters. Rough carpenters commonly work in roofing and
framing.

Finish carpentry
Finish carpentry refers to all carpentry work that will be visible once a building has been completed and, as such,
finish carpenters work to a high level of detail.

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The type of work that finish carpenters do includes decking, flooring, building staircases, installing windows and doors,
erecting pergolas or other structures, install trim and moldings and so on.

Other types of carpentry

There are also other types of carpentry that are more specialized. These include:

Formwork carpentry
Formwork carpentry focuses on erecting and dismantling the formwork that is needed for the pouring of concrete. The
formwork is the "frame" that holds the concrete in place while it cures.

Cabinetmaking
Cabinetmaking is a specialized branch of carpentry that focuses on building cabinetry for kitchens, bathrooms,
laundries, offices and so forth. Furniture making is also a component.

Trim carpentry
A trim carpenter is one that specializes in installing the trims and moldings into a room such as mantles, skirting
boards, cornices, architraves, ornamental trim and so forth.

History

Wood is one of mankind's oldest building materials. The ability to shape wood improved with technological advances
from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. Some of the oldest archaeological evidence of carpentry are water well
casings. These include an oak and hazel structure dating from 5256 BC, found in Ostrov, Czech Republic, and one built using
split oak timbers with mortise and tenon and notched corners excavated in eastern Germany, dating from about 7,000 years ago
in the early Neolithic period.
Relatively little information about carpentry is available from pre-history (before written language) or even recent
centuries because the knowledge and skills were passed down person to person, rarely in writing, until the printing press was
invented in the 15th century and builders began regularly publishing guides and pattern books in the 18th and 19th centuries.
The oldest surviving complete architectural text is Vitruvius' ten books collectively titled De architectura, which discuss some
carpentry.
Some of the oldest surviving wooden buildings in the world are temples in China such as the Nanchan Temple built-in
782, the Greensted Church, parts of which are from the 11th century, and the stave churches in Norway from the 12th and 13th
centuries.

Europe
By the 16th century, sawmills were coming into use in Europe. The founding of America was partly based on a desire to
extract resources from the new continent including wood for use in ships and buildings in Europe. In the 18th century part of
the Industrial Revolution was the invention of the steam engine and cut nails.[12] These technologies combined with the
invention of the circular saw led to the development of balloon framing which was the beginning of the decline of traditional
timber framing.

Axonometric diagram of balloon framing

The 19th century saw the development of electrical engineering and distribution which
allowed the development of hand-held power tools, wire nails, and machines to mass-
produce screws. In the 20th century, portland cement came into common use and
concrete foundations allowed carpenters to do away with heavy timber sills. Also,
drywall (plasterboard) came into common use replacing lime plaster on wooden lath.
Plywood, engineered lumber, and chemically treated lumber also came into use. [13]
Breve compendio de la carpinteria de lo blanco y tratado de alarifes (1727)
For types of carpentry used in America see American historic carpentry.
Training

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CLASSIFICATION OF HANDTOOLS

A. MEASURING TOOLS

1. Pull-Push Rule - flexible tape that slides into a material case and it is used to measure irregular and regular
shapes.
2. Ruler - 12-inch or one-foot rule and it is used to take/make simple measurements.
3. Meter Stick - used to measure a work piece.
4. Try Square - squaring, measuring and testing tool used to check adjacent surfaces for squareness.
5. Caliper - used to transfer measurements from the rule to the work.

B. MARKING LINING TOOLS

1. Pencil - used to layout or mark cutting lines.
2. Marking Gauge - wood or metal tool consisting of a beam, head and a point used to mark a line parallel to the
grain of the wood.
3. Chalk Line - used to establish a straight line on a surface.
4. Divider - tool with two metal legs used to lay-out an arc circle or step off division on a line.
5. Compass - used to scribe arcs and circle in a metal wood.

C. TESTING TOOLS
1. Try Square - tool used in squaring, measuring and testing the squareness
of a wood.
2. Steel Square - framing square used to mark out the work for squaring and
checking of angles and is used in the construction of roof
framing and large furniture.
3. Spirit Level - tool used for testing vertical and horizontal surfaces.
4. Plumb bob - tool used to test the vertical and horizontal surfaces.

D. EDGE CUTTING TOOLS

1. Chisel - tool used to trim and shape wood.
2. Plane - used to obtain a smooth and flat surface.
3. Spoke shave - small plane like tool from irregularly shaped objects.
4. Cabinet scraper - rectangular piece of steel with two cutting edges used for working flat and curved shapes.

E. TOOTH-CUTTING TOOLS
1. Cross Cut Saw - handsaw used to cut the wood across the grain.
2. Rip-saw - hand saw used to cut the wood along the grain.
3. Back Saw - handsaw with a metal back and plywood and joinery.
4. Compass Saw - used to cut irregular shape either in large or small board.
5. Turning Saw - used to rip, cross and cut curves in lumber.
6. Coping Saw - u-shaped saw used for cutting irregular shape in small board.
7. Dovetail Saw - small back saw with a straight chisel type handle used to cut very fine joints.

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 F. BORING TOOLS
1. Auger bit - tool used to make hole in woods.
2. Expansive bit - tool used to drill holes of various sizes in woods.
3. Drill Bit - tool used for boring holes either in metals, woods or plastics.

G. HOLDING TOOLS
1. C-Clamp - used for holding together pieces of lumber while working.
2. Bench Vise - used to hold any materials or tools in place.
3. Bar Clamp - used to hold large boards or frames together while assembling or gluing.

H. MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS
1. Oil Stone - used for sharpening edge cutting tools such as chisel.
2. Files - used to smoothen metal and wood surfaces.
3. Paint Brush - used to apply paint or varnish on wood surfaces
4. Nail Set - used to drive the head of nails lower than surface of wood.
5. Saw Set - used to bend the upper half of each tooth to one side or the other to form a set.

I. PORTABLE POWERTOOLS
1. Sander - portable power tool used for sanding furniture pieces.
2. Router - used for shaping surfaces and edges of furniture parts.
3. Jigsaw - power tool used primarily for cutting curved or irregular shapes of wood surfaces.
4. Circular saw - power saw used for many types of cutting, particularly on large panel stock.
5. Electric Drill - power drill which is used to drill holes in various materials to perform a multitude of tasks.

J. PPE (Personal Protective Equipment)

1. Goggles - used to protect the eyes against flying debris and harmful liquids.
2. Ear Protector - used to protect the ears against high frequency noise.
3. Face Mask - used to prevent the inhalation of sprayed paint fumes.
4. Gloves - used to protect the hands while working.
5. Apron - used to protect the worker against flying debris.

K. DRIVING TOOLS
1. Claw Hammer - used to drive and pull out nails on wooden surfaces.
2. Mallet - made out of wood or rubber used to drive other tools like chisel.
3. Nail Set - used in setting the head of a finishing nail below the surface of the wood.
4. Screw Driver - used to drive and loose screws.

Hand tools offer the advantage of precision. Fine carving and detailed work such as cabinetry, building of musical
instruments and decorative work requires minute control over a tool that is sometimes easier with hand tools. Hand tools also
always work. You require no power, fuel or air pressure and can utilize the tool at any time. The smaller and more compact
nature of hand tools compared to power tools makes them easier and lighter to transport as well.

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EVALUATION/ACTIVITY

A. Answer the following in a ½ sized yellow paper.

1. What is the difference between a hand tool and a power tool?

2. Give at least two importance of hand tools in doing carpentry jobs.

3. Explain the following, “Use the right tool for the right job.”

B. Do the following. Use short sized bond paper.

1. Draw and label the parts of the following tools. Use Oslo paper (individually) and the same template we used in
our Basic Drafting class.

a. Claw Hammer

b. Hand Saw

c. Screwdriver

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Lesson 2
Hardware Materials

At the end if this module, you are expected to;

A. discuss the different hardware materials commonly used in carpentry.
B. classify hardware materials according to their uses and functions.

Let’s Get Down to the Business

Builders' hardware or hardware material is a group of metal hardware specifically used for protection, decoration, and
convenience in buildings. Building products do not make any part of a building, rather they support them and make them work.
It usually supports fixtures like windows, doors, and cabinets. Common examples/classification

include door handles, door hinges, deadbolts, latches, numerals, letter plates, switch plates, and door
knockers. Builders hardware is commonly available in brass, steel, aluminum, stainless steel, and iron.

Door furniture or door hardware refers to any of the items that are attached to a door or a
drawer to enhance its functionality or appearance. Design of door furniture is an issue to disabled
persons who might have difficulty opening or using some kinds of door, and to specialists in interior
design as well as those usability professionals which often take their didactic examples from door
furniture design and use.

Items of door furniture fall into several categories, described below.

Hinges
A hinge is a
It usually consists of a pair of plates, each with a set of open cylindrical rings (the knuckles) attached to
them. The knuckles of the two plates are offset from each other and mesh together. A hinge pin is then
placed through the two sets of knuckles and usually fixed, to combine the plates and make the hinge a
single unit. One door usually has about three hinges, but it can vary.
A hinge is
between them. Two objects connected by an ideal hinge rotate relative to each other about a fixed axis of rotation: all other
translations or rotations being prevented, and thus a hinge has one degree of freedom. Hinges may be made of flexible material
or of moving components. In biology, many joints function as hinges like the elbow joint.

TYPES
Barrel hinge
A barrel hinge consists of a sectional barrel (the knuckle) secured by a pivot. A barrel is simply a hollow cylinder.
The vast majority of hinges operate on the barrel principle.
Butt hinge / Mortise hinge
Any hinge which is designed to be set into a door frame and/ or door is considered to be a butt hinge or a mortise
hinge. A hinge can also be made as a half-mortise, in which case only one half of the hinge is mortised and the other is not.
Most mortise hinges are also barrel hinges by virtue of how they pivot (i.e., a pair of leaves secured to each other by
knuckles through which runs a pin).
Butterfly/ Parliament (UK) hinge
These are a decorative variety of barrel hinge with leaves somewhat resembling the wings of a butterfly
Case hinges
Case hinges are similar to a butt hinge however usually more of a decorative nature most commonly used in suitcases,
briefcases, and the like.
Concealed hinge
These are used for furniture doors (with or without self-closing feature, and with or without damping systems). They
are made of two parts: One part is the hinge cup and the arm; the other part is the mounting plate. Also called "cup
hinge", or "Euro hinge", as they were developed in Europe and use metric installation standards. Most such concealed
hinges offer the advantage of full in situ adjustability for standoff distance from the cabinet face as well as pitch and
roll by means of two screws on each hinge.
Continuous/ Piano hinge
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 This variety of barrel hinge runs the entire length of a door, panel, box., etc. Continuous hinges are manufactured with
or without holes.
Flag hinge
These consist of a single leaf attached (in the male variety) to a pin. When used, the pin is inserted into theother
(female) portion of the hinge. This allows the objects to be easily removed (for example, a removable door). They are
manufactured in right-hand and left-hand configurations.
H hinge
These barrel hinges are shaped like an H and used on flush-mounted doors. Small H hinges (3–4 in or 76–102 mm)
tend to be used for cabinets hinges, while larger hinges (6–7 in or 150–180 mm) are for passage doors or closet doors.
HL hinge
These were common for passage doors, room doors, and closet doors in the 17th, 18th, and even 19th centuries. On
taller doors, H hinges were occasionally used in the middle along with the HL hinges.
Pivot hinge
This hinge pivots in openings in the floor and the top of the door frame. Also referred to as a double-acting floor
hinge. This type is found in ancient dry-stone buildings and rarely in old wooden buildings. These are also called haar-hung
doors. They are a low-cost alternative for use with lightweight doors.
Self-closing hinge
This is a spring-loaded hinge with speed control function. The same as spring hinge, usually use spring to provide
force to close the door and provide a mechanical or hydraulic damper to control door close speed. That can prevent door
slamming problem while auto closes a door.
Spring hinge
This is a spring-loaded hinge made to help in the closing or the opening of the hinge leaves. A spring is a component
of a hinge, that applies force to secure a hinge closed or keep a hinge opened.
Swing Clear hinge
Swing Clear Door Hinges (aka Offset Door Hinges) are perfect for residential and commercial doors, as they allow
doors to swing completely clear of openings. Swing Clear Hinges can easily comply with Fair Housing Act (FHA)
code by providing a minimum ADA 32” clearance clearance when using a 34” door slab.
Living hinge
This hinge takes advantage of the flexibility of plastic to create a join between two objects without any knuckles or
pins. They are molded as a single piece, never become rusted, do not squeak, and have several other advantages over
other hinges, but the plastic makes them more susceptible to breakage.

Handles
A door handle or doorknob is a handle used to open or close a door. Door handles can be found on
all types of doors including exterior doors of residential and commercial buildings, internal doors, cupboard
doors and vehicle doors. There are many designs of door handle, depending on the appropriate use. A large
number of handles, particularly for commercial and residential doors, incorporate latching or locking
mechanisms or are manufactured to fit to standardized door locking or latching mechanisms.

The most common types of door handle are the lever handle and the doorknob. Door handles can be made out of a wide variety
of materials. Examples include brass, porcelain, cut glass, wood, and bronze. Door handles have been in existence for at least
5000 years, and its design has evolved since, with more advanced mechanism, types, and designs made.

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Locks
A lock is a device that prevents access by those without a key or combination,
generally by preventing one or more latches from being operated. Often accompanied by an
escutcheon. Some doors, particularly older ones, will have a keyhole accompanying the lock.
A lock is a mechanical or electronic fastening device that is released by a physical
object (such as a key, keycard, fingerprint, RFID card, security token, coin, etc.), by
supplying secret information (such as a number or letter permutation or password), or by a
combination thereof or only being able to be opened from one side such as a door chain.

A key is a device that is used to operate a lock (such as to lock or unlock it). A typical key is
a small piece of metal consisting of two parts: the bit or blade, which slides into the keyway
of the lock and distinguishes between different keys, and the bow, which is left protruding so that torque can be applied by the
user. In its simplest implementation, a key operates one lock or set of locks that are keyed alike, a lock/key system where each
similarly keyed lock requires the same, unique key.

The key serves as a security token for access to the locked area; locks are meant to only allow persons having the correct key
to open it and gain access. In more complex mechanical lock/key systems, two different keys, one of which is known as the
master key, serve to open the lock. Common metals include brass, plated brass, nickel silver, and steel.

Fasteners
Most doors make use of one or more fasteners to hold the door closed. Typical or common fasteners include:

Latch – A device that allows one to fasten a door, but doesn't necessarily require an external handle
Bolt – A (nearly always) metal shaft usually internal to the door, attached by cleats or a specific form of bracket, that slides
into the jamb to fasten a door.
Latch bolt – A bolt that has an angled surface which acts as a ramp to push the bolt in while the door is being closed.
By the use of a latch bolt, a door can be closed without having to operate the handle.
Deadbolt – Deadbolts usually extend deeper into the frame and are not automatically retractable the way latch bolts
are. They are typically manipulated with a lock on the outside and either a lock or a latch on the inside.
Deadbolts are generally used for security purposes on external doors in case somebody tries to kick the door
in or use a tool such as a crowbar or a hammer and screwdriver etc.

Nails
A nail is a small object made of metal (or wood, called a tree nail or "trunnel") which is used as a fastener, as a peg to
hang something, or sometimes as a decoration. Generally, nails have a sharp point on one end and a flattened head on the
other, but headless nails are available. Nails are made in a great variety of forms for specialized purposes. The most common is
a wire nail. Other types of nails include pins, tacks, brads, spikes, and cleats.

Nails are typically driven into the workpiece by a hammer or pneumatic nail gun. A nail holds materials together by friction in
the axial direction and shear strength laterally. The point of the nail is also sometimes bent over or clinched after driving to
prevent pulling out.

Types of nail include:

Aluminum nails – Made of aluminum in many shapes and sizes for use with aluminum architectural metals
Box nail – like a common nail but with a thinner shank and head
Brads are small, thin, tapered, nails with a lip or projection to one side rather than a full head or a small finish nail
Floor brad ('stigs') – flat, tapered and angular, for use in fixing floor boards
Oval brad – Ovals utilize the principles of fracture mechanics to allow nailing without splitting. Highly anisotropic
materials like regular wood (as opposed to wood composites) can easily be wedged apart. Use of an oval
perpendicular to the wood's grain cuts the wood fibers rather than wedges them apart, and thus allows
fastening without splitting, even close to edges
Panel pins
Tacks or Tintacks are short, sharp pointed nails often used with carpet, fabric and paper. Normally cut from sheet steel
(as opposed to wire); the tack is used in upholstery, shoe making and saddle manufacture. The triangular shape of the
nail's cross section gives greater grip and less tearing of materials such as cloth and leather compared to a wire nail.
Brass tack – brass tacks are commonly used where corrosion may be an issue, such as furniture where contact with
human skin salts will cause corrosion on steel nails

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 Canoe tack – A clinching (or clenching) nail. The nail point is tapered so that it can be turned back on itself using a
clinching iron. It then bites back into the wood from the side opposite the nail's head, forming a rivet-like fastening.
Shoe tack – A clinching nail (see above) for clinching leather and sometimes wood, formerly used for handmade
shoes.
Carpet tack
Upholstery tacks – used to attach coverings to furniture
Thumbtack (or "push-pin" or "drawing-pin") are lightweight pins used to secure paper or cardboard.
Casing nails – have a head that is smoothly tapered, in comparison to the "stepped" head of a finish nail. When used to install
casing around windows or doors, they allow the wood to be pried off later with minimal damage when repairs are
needed, and without the need to dent the face of the casing in order to grab and extract the nail. Once the casing has
been removed, the nails can be extracted from the inner frame with any of the usual nail pullers
Clout nail – a roofing nail
Coil nail – nails designed for use in a pneumatic nail gun assembled in coils
Common nail – smooth shank, wire nail with a heavy, flat head. The typical nail for framing and common carpentry works
Copper nail – nails made of copper for use with copper flashing or slate shingles etc.
Corrugated fastener (wiggle nail) – a corrugated shaped piece of metal driven into miter joints in some furniture
Double-ended nail – a rare type of nail with points on both ends and the "head" in the middle for joining boards together. See
this patent. Similar to a dowel nail but with a head on the shank.
Dowel nail – a double pointed nail without a "head" on the shank, a piece of round steel sharpened on both ends
Fiber cement nail – a nail for installing fiber cement siding
Finishing nail (bullet head nail, lost-head nail) – A wire nail with a small head intended to be minimally visible or driven
below the wood surface and the hole filled to be invisible
Masonry (concrete) – lengthwise fluted, hardened nail for use in concrete
Roofing (clout) nail – generally a short nail with a broad head used with asphalt shingles, felt paper or the like

Different types of nails:

1) roofing
2) umbrella head roofing
3) brass escutcheon pin
4) finish
5) concrete
6) spiral-shank
7) ring-shank (a used, bent "gun" nail, with barbs left over from
the tool's feed system)

Screws
A screw and a bolt (see Differentiation between bolt and screw below) are similar types of fastener typically made of
metal and characterized by a helical ridge, called a male thread (external thread). Screws and bolts are used to fasten materials
by the engagement of the screw thread with a similar female thread (internal thread) in the matching part.

Screws are often self-threading (also known as self-tapping) where the thread cuts into the material when the screw is turned,
creating an internal thread that helps pull fastened materials together and prevents pull-out. There are many screws for a
variety of materials; those commonly fastened by screws include wood, sheet metal, and plastic.

A wood screw: a) head; b) non-threaded

shank; c) threaded shank; d) tip.

A carriage bolt with a square nut

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Differentiation between bolt and screw

There is no universally accepted distinction between a screw and a bolt. A simple distinction that is often true, although not
always, is that a bolt passes through a substrate and takes a nut on the other side, whereas a screw takes no nut because it
threads directly into the substrate (a screw screws into something, a bolt bolts several things together). So, as a general rule,
when buying a packet of "screws", nuts would not be expected to be included, but bolts are often sold with matching nuts. Part
of the confusion over this is likely due to regional or dialectical differences. Machinery's Handbook describes the distinction as
follows:

A bolt is an externally threaded fastener designed for insertion through holes in assembled parts, and is normally intended to be
tightened or released by torquing a nut. A screw is an externally threaded fastener capable of being inserted into holes in
assembled parts, of mating with a preformed internal thread or forming its own thread, and of being tightened or released by
torquing the head. An externally threaded fastener which is prevented from being turned during assembly and which can be
tightened or released only by torquing a nut is a bolt. (Example: round head bolts, track bolts, plow bolts.) An externally
threaded fastener that has thread form which prohibits assembly with a nut having a straight thread of multiple pitch length is a
screw. (Example: wood screws, tapping screws.)

EVALUATION/ACTIVITY
A. Identify the terms described by the following statements. Write your answer on a ½ sheet of paper.

1. It is a type of nail that is use for common construction work.

2. A wire nail with a small head intended to be minimally visible or driven below the wood surface.
3. These are hardware use to hold the door closed.
4. Lightweight pins use to secure papers or cardboards.
5. It is a device that prevents access by those without a key or combination.
6. A hardware used to open or close a door.
7. A component that attaches one edge of a door to the frame, while allowing the other edge to swing from it.
8. Like a common nail but with a thinner shank and head.
9. Refers to any of the items that are attached to a door or a drawer to enhance its functionality or appearance.
10. This variety of barrel hinge runs the entire length of a door, panel, box.

B. Answer the following briefly.

1. Discuss the importance of having a complete material (hardware) before doing any carpentry works.

2. Give the different classification of hardware materials and give at least three samples for each classification.

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