Fluid Mechanics CEE 3311

LECTURE 14

Ideal Flow

L. Handia
 Introduction
▪ An ideal fluid may be defined as a fluid in which there is no friction; it is inviscid (its
viscosity is zero).
▪ In this chapter we discuss various mathematical methods for describing the flow of
imaginary ideal (frictionless) fluids. This subject is often referred to as hydrodynamics. It is
a vast subject, so that the presentation here provides only an introduction, but it does give a
good idea of the possibilities of a rigorous mathematical approach to flow problems.
▪ Even though such an approach does not consider all the real properties of fluids, the results
often closely approximate the behavior of real fluids. This is because there are numerous
situations in which friction plays only a minor role.
▪ For example, for fluids of low viscosity the viscosity affects only a thin region at the fluid
boundaries. Turbulence and separation of the boundary layer occur far more readily with
decelerating flows, and that accelerating flows generally have thin boundary layers. For such
flows, mathematical analysis of ideal fluids yields results, often elegant, that can and do
provide many useful and important insights into real fluid behavior.
▪ To concentrate on fundamentals, after the next section we shall limit our discussions to
incompressible fluids and to two-dimensional, steady flow fields. It is rather interesting how
the same methods can be applied to the flow of a real fluid through porous media such as an
earth dam and underground aquifers. However, this will not be covered in this course but in
Hydrology (CEE 4311) and Hydraulic Structures (CEE 5311) for CEE students.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

m V x

 (u )
= = yz = uyz
t t t
m
=− xyz
t x

d(Mass) d
=  ρdV +  ρ vdA
dt dt cv cs
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

m  (V ) 
= = xyz
t t t
m  ( V )   (u )  (v )  (w)
= = xyz = − xyz − xyz − xyz
t t t x y z
Divide by ΔxΔyΔz yields
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

δv Since it is 2 dimensional
 ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOW
• Irrotational flow may be briefly described as flow in which
each element of the moving fluid suffers no net rotation
from one instant to the next, with respect to a given frame
of reference.
• Another definition of irrotational flow: it is that type of
flow in which the fluid particles when flowing along the
streamlines do not rotate about their own axis
• Definition of rotational flow: opposite of above

• The classic example of irrotational motion (although not a

fluid) is that of the carriages on a Ferris wheel used for
amusement rides.
 ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOW
• Each carriage describes a circular path as the wheel
revolves , but does not rotate with respect to the earth.

i.e., the carriage is always horizontal (with

respect to the earth) so that people do not
fall
 ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOW
• In irrotational flow, however, a fluid element may deform as shown
in Fig 14.2a, where the axes of the element rotate equally toward or
away from each other (like in a Ferris wheel). As long as the
algebraic average rotation is zero, the motion is irrotational.

• In Fig 14.2b is depicted an example of rotational flow. In this case

there is a net rotation of the fluid element. Actually, the deformation
of the element in Fig. 14.2b is less than that of Fig. 14.2a.
ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOW
• Let us now express the condition of irrotationality in
mathematical terms.
• It will help to restrict the discussion at first to two-
dimensional motion in the x y plane
ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOW
• Consider a small fluid element moving as depicted in Fig.
14.3a.
v
u

𝜕𝑣
∆𝑥 ∆t
𝜕𝑥

• During a short time interval Δt, the element moves from

one position to another and in the process it deforms as
indicated.
• Superimposing A' on A, defining an x axis along AB, and
enlarging the diagram, we get Fig. 14.3b. u and v are
velocities in x and y axes, respectively
ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOW
• The angle Δα between AB and A'B' can be expressed from
Fig. 14.3b as
tan Δα= Δα
when Δα is
small

• Hence the rate of rotation of the edge of the element that

was originally aligned with AB is

𝜕𝑣
∆𝑥 ∆t
𝜕𝑥
 ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOW
• Likewise

• and the rate of rotation of the edge of the element that was
originally aligned with AB is

with the negative sign because +u is directed to the right.

• The rate of rotation of the element about the z axis is now
defined to be ωz, the average of ωα and ωβ; thus

𝜕𝑣
∆𝑥 ∆t
𝜕𝑥
ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOW
• But the criterion we originally stipulated for irrotational
flow was that the rate of rotation be zero. Therefore we
have
irrotational flow
in xy plane

• In three-dimensional flow there are corresponding

expressions for the components of angular-deformation
rates about the x and y axes. Finally, for the general case,
irrotational flow is defined to be that for which

• In Slide 17, we shall see that the primary significance of

irrotational flow is that it is defined by a velocity potential.
ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOW

for irrotational flow

 THE STREAM FUNCTION
The stream function ψ (psi), based on the continuity principle, is a
mathematical expression that describes a flow field. In Fig. 14.6 are
shown two adjacent streamlines of a two-dimensional flow field. Let ψ
(x, y) represent the streamline nearest the origin. Then ψ + dψ is
representative of the second streamline. Since there is no flow across a
streamline, we can let ψ be indicative of the flow carried through the
area from the origin O to the first streamline. And thus dψ represents
the flow carried between the two streamlines of Fig. 14.6. From
continuity, referring to the triangular fluid element of Fig. 14.6, we see
that for an incompressible fluid 14.14
-ve because flow in opposite
direction to y-axis
The total derivative dψ may also
be expressed as
14.15
 THE STREAM FUNCTION
• Comparing these last two equations, we note that
14.16

• Thus, if ψ can be expressed as a function of x and y, we can find

the velocity components (u and v) at any point of a two-
dimensional flow field by application of Eqs. (14.16).
• Conversely, if u and v are expressed as functions of x and y, we
can find ψ by integrating Eq. (14.14).
• However, it should be noted that since the derivation of ψ is based
on the principle of continuity, it is necessary that continuity be
satisfied for the stream function to exist.
v u
• Also, since vorticity  = x − y (the circulation per unit of enclosed
area) was not considered in the derivation of ψ, the flow need not
be irrotational for the stream function to exist.
 THE STREAM FUNCTION
• The equation of continuity ( )

may be expressed in terms of ψ by substituting the expressions for

u and v from Eqs. (14.16); doing so, we get

which shows that, if , the derivatives taken in either

order give the same result and that a flow described by a stream
function automatically satisfies the continuity equation (since
is satisfied)
 BASIC FLOW FIELDS
In this section we shall discuss one of the basic flow fields that is
commonly encountered. Though these flow fields imply an ideal
fluid, they closely depict the flow of a real fluid outside the zone of
viscous influence provided there is no separation of the flow from
the boundaries (see Sec. 4.10). The simplest of all flows is that in
which the streamlines are straight, parallel, and evenly spaced as
indicated in Fig. 14.7. In this case v = 0 and u = constant. Thus,
from Eq. (14.14), , and hence , where U is the
velocity of flow. If the distance between streamlines is a, the
values of ψ for the streamlines are as indicated in Fig. 14.7. e.g.,
ψ=Uy=3Ua
v when y=3a

u
 VELOCITY POTENTIAL
Let us define the potential
14.20
Mathematically, this is termed an “exact” differential, and therefore the
function ϕ (x,y) exists, if
14.21
14.21 will be proved in 14.25
But the total derivative is defined to be
14.22

By comparing (14.20) with (14.22) we see that in Cartesian coordinates

14.23

The use of a minus sign in Eq. (14.20) led to the minus signs in the expressions (14.23),
which indicate that the velocity potential decreases in the direction of flow, i.e., flow
moves from areas of high potential (head) to low potential (head). E.g., the Zambezi
River flows from Kaleni Hills (potential or z = 1,460m amsl) to the Indian Ocean (z =
0). Some authors prefer the opposite, and so change these signs e.g. Darcy’s formula
dh
− v = K = K
dx for flow through porous media (such as groundwater & earth dams)
 VELOCITY POTENTIAL
The use of a minus sign in Eq. (14.20) led to the minus signs in the expressions (14.23),
which indicate that the velocity potential decreases in the direction of flow, i.e., flow
moves from areas of high potential (head) to low potential (head). E.g., the Zambezi
River flows from Kaleni Hills (potential or z = 1,460m amsl) to the Indian Ocean (z =
0). Some authors prefer the opposite, and so change these signs e.g. Darcy’s formula
dh
− v = K = K
dx for flow through porous media (such as groundwater & earth dams)
 VELOCITY POTENTIAL
For two-dimensional flow, ϕ with conditions (14.23) is termed the
velocity potential function. In polar coordinates, the corresponding
expressions are

Differentiating Eqs. (14.23), we get

14.25

Since the right-hand sides of these two last quantities are equal, this
satisfies the requirement (14.21), which, from equation of vorticity
v u
= − , proves that ξ = 0. Thus it follows that if a flow is irrotational
x y

(ξ = 0) then a velocity potential exists, and vice versa. Because of the

existence of a velocity potential, such flow is often referred to as
potential flow.
 VELOCITY POTENTIAL
The rotation of fluid particles requires the application of torque (
defined as a measure of how much a force acting on an object causes
that object to rotate), which in turn depends on shearing forces. Such
forces are possible only in a viscous fluid. In inviscid (or ideal) fluids
there can be no shears and hence no torques.
If we substitute Eqs. (14.23) into the continuity Eq. (14.3), we get

14.26

This is the Laplace equation, named after the French mathematician

and astronomer, Marquis Pierre Simon de Laplace (1749-1827). It is
possibly the best known of all partial differential equations, important
also in solid mechanics and thermodynamics. For fluids, if a function ϕ
satisfies Laplace’s equation, the resulting flow must be irrotational.
 ORTHOGONALITY OF STREAMLINES
AND EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES
From Eqs. (14.14) and (14.20) we have

and
Along a streamline, ψ = constant, so dψ = 0, and from the first
equation (14.14) we get dy/dx = v/u. dy v
d = −vdx + udy  0 = −vdx + udy  =
dx u
Along an equipotential line, ϕ = constant, so dϕ = 0, and from the
second equation (14.20) we get dy/dx = -u/v. dy u
d = −udx − vdy  0 = −udx − vdy  =−
dx v
Geometrically, this tells us that the streamlines and equipotential
lines are orthogonal, or everywhere perpendicular to each other. As
a result, the stream function and the velocity potential are known as
conjugate functions.
 ORTHOGONALITY OF STREAMLINES
AND EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES
The equipotential lines ϕ = C, and the streamlines ψ = K, where the C and the K
have equal increments between adjacent lines, form a network of intersecting
perpendicular lines that is called a flow net (Fig. 14.10).
The small quadrilaterals must evidently become squares as their size
approaches zero, if the x and y scales are the same (e.g., length: head (y axis) &
length (x axis)), since from Eqs. (14.16) and (14.23) |u| = |δϕ/δx| = | δψ/δy |, or
for finite increments |Δϕ/Δx| = |Δψ/Δy|.
The difference in value of the stream function between adjacent streamlines is
called the strength of the stream tube bounded by two streamlines, and it
represents the two-dimensional flow through the tube.
 ORTHOGONALITY OF STREAMLINES
AND EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES
• Stream functions can exist in the absence of irrotationality, and
potential functions are possible even though continuity is not
satisfied.
• But, since lines of ϕ and ψ are required to form an orthogonal
network, a flow net can only exist if irrotationlity (the condition
for the existence of ϕ) and continuity (the condition for the
existence of ψ) are satisfied. The Laplace equation was derived
assuming the existence of velocity potentials and the satisfaction
of continuity. Thus, if a given flow satisfies the Laplace equation,
a flow net can be constructed for that flow.
• Because of irrotationality requirement such potential flows are
usually those of ideal fluids.
 ORTHOGONALITY OF STREAMLINES
AND EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES
Example of an earth dam

irrotationality

The small quadrilaterals must evidently become squares as their size approaches
zero, if the x and y scales are the same (e.g., length: head (y axis) & length (x axis)),
since Eqs. (14.16) and (14.23) |u| = |δϕ/δx| = | δψ/δy |, or for finite increments
|Δϕ/Δx| = |Δψ/Δy|.
The difference in value of the stream function between adjacent streamlines is
called the strength of the stream tube bounded by two streamlines, and it represents
the two-dimensional flow through the tube.
ORTHOGONALITY OF STREAMLINES
AND EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES
ORTHOGONALITY OF STREAMLINES
AND EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES
ORTHOGONALITY OF STREAMLINES
AND EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES
USE AND LIMITATIONS OF FLOW NET
EXAMPLES OF FLOWNETS
EXAMPLES OF FLOWNETS
EXAMPLES OF FLOWNETS