97909_13_ch13_p839-847.

qk_97909_13_ch13_p839-847 10/6/10 2:14 PM Page 839

13 Vector Functions

Kepler’s First Law says that the planets

revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits.
In Section 13.4 you will see how the
material of this chapter is used in one of
the great achievements of calculus:
proving Kepler’s Laws.

© Christos Georghiou / Shutterstock

The functions that we have been using so far have been real-valued functions. We now study functions
whose values are vectors because such functions are needed to describe curves and surfaces in space. We
will also use vector-valued functions to describe the motion of objects through space. In particular, we
will use them to derive Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.

839

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840 CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

13.1 Vector Functions and Space Curves

In general, a function is a rule that assigns to each element in the domain an element in the
range. A vector-valued function, or vector function, is simply a function whose domain is
a set of real numbers and whose range is a set of vectors. We are most interested in vector
functions r whose values are three-dimensional vectors. This means that for every number
t in the domain of r there is a unique vector in V3 denoted by r共t兲. If f 共t兲, t共t兲, and h共t兲 are
the components of the vector r共t兲, then f , t, and h are real-valued functions called the com-
ponent functions of r and we can write

r共t兲 苷 具 f 共t兲, t共t兲, h共t兲典 苷 f 共t兲 i ⫹ t共t兲 j ⫹ h共t兲 k

We use the letter t to denote the independent variable because it represents time in most
applications of vector functions.

EXAMPLE 1 If

r共t兲 苷 具 t 3, ln共3 ⫺ t兲, st 典

then the component functions are

f 共t兲 苷 t 3 t共t兲 苷 ln共3 ⫺ t兲 h共t兲 苷 st

By our usual convention, the domain of r consists of all values of t for which the
expression for r共t兲 is defined. The expressions t 3, ln共3 ⫺ t兲, and st are all defined
when 3 ⫺ t ⬎ 0 and t 艌 0. Therefore the domain of r is the interval 关0, 3兲.

The limit of a vector function r is defined by taking the limits of its component functions
as follows.

1 If r共t兲 苷 具 f 共t兲, t共t兲, h共t兲典 , then

If lim t l a r共t兲 苷 L, this definition is equiva-
lent to saying that the length and direction
of the vector r共t兲 approach the length and tla 具
lim r共t兲 苷 lim f 共t兲, lim t共t兲, lim h共t兲
tla tla tla 典
direction of the vector L.
provided the limits of the component functions exist.

Equivalently, we could have used an ␧-␦ definition (see Exercise 51). Limits of vector
functions obey the same rules as limits of real-valued functions (see Exercise 49).

sin t
EXAMPLE 2 Find lim r共t兲, where r共t兲 苷 共1 ⫹ t 3 兲 i ⫹ te⫺t j ⫹ k.
tl0 t
SOLUTION According to Definition 1, the limit of r is the vector whose components are
the limits of the component functions of r:

关
lim r共t兲 苷 lim 共1 ⫹ t 3 兲 i ⫹ lim te⫺t j ⫹ lim
tl0 tl0 兴 关 tl0 兴 冋 tl0
sin t
t
k 册
苷i⫹k (by Equation 3.3.2)

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SECTION 13.1 VECTOR FUNCTIONS AND SPACE CURVES 841

A vector function r is continuous at a if

lim r共t兲 苷 r共a兲

tla

In view of Definition 1, we see that r is continuous at a if and only if its component func-
tions f , t, and h are continuous at a.
z There is a close connection between continuous vector functions and space curves. Sup-
P { f(t), g(t), h(t)} pose that f , t, and h are continuous real-valued functions on an interval I. Then the set C of
all points 共x, y, z兲 in space, where
C
2 x 苷 f 共t兲 y 苷 t共t兲 z 苷 h共t兲
r(t)=kf(t), g(t), h(t)l
0
and t varies throughout the interval I, is called a space curve. The equations in 2 are called
y parametric equations of C and t is called a parameter. We can think of C as being traced
x
out by a moving particle whose position at time t is 共 f 共t兲, t共t兲, h共t兲兲. If we now consider the
FIGURE 1 vector function r共t兲 苷 具 f 共t兲, t共t兲, h共t兲典 , then r共t兲 is the position vector of the point
C is traced out by the tip of a moving P共 f 共t兲, t共t兲, h共t兲兲 on C. Thus any continuous vector function r defines a space curve C that
position vector r(t). is traced out by the tip of the moving vector r共t兲, as shown in Figure 1.

v EXAMPLE 3 Describe the curve defined by the vector function

r共t兲 苷 具 1 ⫹ t, 2 ⫹ 5t, ⫺1 ⫹ 6t 典
TEC Visual 13.1A shows several curves being SOLUTION The corresponding parametric equations are
traced out by position vectors, including those in
Figures 1 and 2. x苷1⫹t y 苷 2 ⫹ 5t z 苷 ⫺1 ⫹ 6t
which we recognize from Equations 12.5.2 as parametric equations of a line passing
through the point 共1, 2, ⫺1兲 and parallel to the vector 具1, 5, 6典 . Alternatively, we could
observe that the function can be written as r 苷 r0 ⫹ tv, where r0 苷 具1, 2, ⫺1典 and
v 苷 具1, 5, 6 典 , and this is the vector equation of a line as given by Equation 12.5.1.

Plane curves can also be represented in vector notation. For instance, the curve given by
the parametric equations x 苷 t 2 ⫺ 2t and y 苷 t ⫹ 1 (see Example 1 in Section 10.1) could
also be described by the vector equation
r共t兲 苷 具 t 2 ⫺ 2t, t ⫹ 1典 苷 共t 2 ⫺ 2t兲 i ⫹ 共t ⫹ 1兲 j
where i 苷 具1, 0典 and j 苷 具 0, 1典 .

z v EXAMPLE 4 Sketch the curve whose vector equation is

r共t兲 苷 cos t i ⫹ sin t j ⫹ t k

SOLUTION The parametric equations for this curve are

x 苷 cos t y 苷 sin t z苷t

π
Since x 2 ⫹ y 2 苷 cos 2t ⫹ sin 2t 苷 1, the curve must lie on the circular cylinder
”0, 1, 2 ’
x 2 ⫹ y 2 苷 1. The point 共x, y, z兲 lies directly above the point 共x, y, 0兲, which moves
counterclockwise around the circle x 2 ⫹ y 2 苷 1 in the xy-plane. (The projection of the
y
(1, 0, 0) curve onto the xy-plane has vector equation r共t兲 苷 具 cos t, sin t, 0典 . See Example 2 in
x
Section 10.1.) Since z 苷 t, the curve spirals upward around the cylinder as t increases.
FIGURE 2 The curve, shown in Figure 2, is called a helix.

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842 CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

The corkscrew shape of the helix in Example 4 is familiar from its occurrence in coiled
springs. It also occurs in the model of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid, the genetic material of
living cells). In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick showed that the structure of the DNA
molecule is that of two linked, parallel helixes that are intertwined as in Figure 3.
In Examples 3 and 4 we were given vector equations of curves and asked for a geo-
metric description or sketch. In the next two examples we are given a geometric descrip-
tion of a curve and are asked to find parametric equations for the curve.

EXAMPLE 5 Find a vector equation and parametric equations for the line segment that
joins the point P共1, 3, ⫺2兲 to the point Q共2, ⫺1, 3兲.
FIGURE 3
A double helix SOLUTION In Section 12.5 we found a vector equation for the line segment that joins the
tip of the vector r 0 to the tip of the vector r1:
Figure 4 shows the line segment PQ in
Example 5.
r共t兲 苷 共1 ⫺ t兲 r 0 ⫹ t r1 0艋t艋1
z

Q(2, _1, 3) (See Equation 12.5.4.) Here we take r 0 苷 具 1, 3, ⫺2典 and r1 苷 具 2, ⫺1, 3典 to obtain a
vector equation of the line segment from P to Q :

r共t兲 苷 共1 ⫺ t兲 具1, 3, ⫺2典 ⫹ t具 2, ⫺1, 3典 0艋t艋1

or r共t兲 苷 具 1 ⫹ t, 3 ⫺ 4t, ⫺2 ⫹ 5t典 0艋t艋1

x y

The corresponding parametric equations are

P(1, 3, _2)

FIGURE 4 x苷1⫹t y 苷 3 ⫺ 4t z 苷 ⫺2 ⫹ 5t 0艋t艋1

v EXAMPLE 6 Find a vector function that represents the curve of intersection of the
cylinder x 2 ⫹ y 2 苷 1 and the plane y ⫹ z 苷 2.
SOLUTION Figure 5 shows how the plane and the cylinder intersect, and Figure 6 shows
the curve of intersection C, which is an ellipse.

z z

y+z=2 (0, _1, 3)

(_1, 0, 2)
C

(1, 0, 2)

(0, 1, 1)
≈+¥=1
0

x y x y

FIGURE 5 FIGURE 6

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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SECTION 13.1 VECTOR FUNCTIONS AND SPACE CURVES 843

The projection of C onto the xy-plane is the circle x 2 ⫹ y 2 苷 1, z 苷 0. So we know

from Example 2 in Section 10.1 that we can write

x 苷 cos t y 苷 sin t 0 艋 t 艋 2␲

From the equation of the plane, we have

z 苷 2 ⫺ y 苷 2 ⫺ sin t

So we can write parametric equations for C as

x 苷 cos t y 苷 sin t z 苷 2 ⫺ sin t 0 艋 t 艋 2␲

The corresponding vector equation is

r共t兲 苷 cos t i ⫹ sin t j ⫹ 共2 ⫺ sin t兲 k 0 艋 t 艋 2␲

This equation is called a parametrization of the curve C. The arrows in Figure 6 indicate
the direction in which C is traced as the parameter t increases.

Using Computers to Draw Space Curves

Space curves are inherently more difficult to draw by hand than plane curves; for an accu-
rate representation we need to use technology. For instance, Figure 7 shows a computer-
generated graph of the curve with parametric equations

x 苷 共4 ⫹ sin 20t兲 cos t y 苷 共4 ⫹ sin 20t兲 sin t z 苷 cos 20t

It’s called a toroidal spiral because it lies on a torus. Another interesting curve, the trefoil
knot, with equations

x 苷 共2 ⫹ cos 1.5t兲 cos t y 苷 共2 ⫹ cos 1.5t兲 sin t z 苷 sin 1.5t

is graphed in Figure 8. It wouldn’t be easy to plot either of these curves by hand.

z z

x
y y
x

FIGURE 7 A toroidal spiral FIGURE 8 A trefoil knot

Even when a computer is used to draw a space curve, optical illusions make it difficult
to get a good impression of what the curve really looks like. (This is especially true in Fig-
ure 8. See Exercise 50.) The next example shows how to cope with this problem.

EXAMPLE 7 Use a computer to draw the curve with vector equation r共t兲 苷 具t, t 2, t 3 典. This
curve is called a twisted cubic.
SOLUTION We start by using the computer to plot the curve with parametric equations
x 苷 t, y 苷 t 2, z 苷 t 3 for ⫺2 艋 t 艋 2. The result is shown in Figure 9(a), but it’s hard to

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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844 CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

see the true nature of the curve from that graph alone. Most three-dimensional computer
graphing programs allow the user to enclose a curve or surface in a box instead of dis-
playing the coordinate axes. When we look at the same curve in a box in Figure 9(b), we
have a much clearer picture of the curve. We can see that it climbs from a lower corner
of the box to the upper corner nearest us, and it twists as it climbs.

z
_2 6
6 6
z 0
z 0
2
x _6 2 _6
0 _2
4 y _6
_2
y2 0 x
0 x
0
4 2 y2 4 2
(a) (b) (c)
_2 8 8

_1 4 4

0 x z 0 z 0

1 _4 _4

2 _8 _8
0 1 2 3 4 2 1 0 _1 _2 0 1 2 3 4
y x y
(d) (e) (f )

FIGURE 9 Views of the twisted cubic

We get an even better idea of the curve when we view it from different vantage
TEC In Visual 13.1B you can rotate the box
points. Part (c) shows the result of rotating the box to give another viewpoint. Parts (d),
in Figure 9 to see the curve from any viewpoint.
(e), and (f ) show the views we get when we look directly at a face of the box. In par-
ticular, part (d) shows the view from directly above the box. It is the projection of the
curve on the xy-plane, namely, the parabola y 苷 x 2. Part (e) shows the projection on
the xz-plane, the cubic curve z 苷 x 3. It’s now obvious why the given curve is called a
twisted cubic.

Another method of visualizing a space curve is to draw it on a surface. For instance, the
twisted cubic in Example 7 lies on the parabolic cylinder y 苷 x 2. (Eliminate the parameter
from the first two parametric equations, x 苷 t and y 苷 t 2.) Figure 10 shows both the cylin-
der and the twisted cubic, and we see that the curve moves upward from the origin along
the surface of the cylinder. We also used this method in Example 4 to visualize the helix
lying on the circular cylinder (see Figure 2).
z

x
y

FIGURE 10

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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SECTION 13.1 VECTOR FUNCTIONS AND SPACE CURVES 845

A third method for visualizing the twisted cubic is to realize that it also lies on the cylin-
der z 苷 x 3. So it can be viewed as the curve of intersection of the cylinders y 苷 x 2 and
z 苷 x 3. (See Figure 11.)
8

4
TEC Visual 13.1C shows how curves arise
as intersections of surfaces. z 0

_4

_8
_1 0 2 4
1 0 y
FIGURE 11 x

Some computer algebra systems provide us We have seen that an interesting space curve, the helix, occurs in the model of DNA.
with a clearer picture of a space curve by Another notable example of a space curve in science is the trajectory of a positively charged
enclosing it in a tube. Such a plot enables us
particle in orthogonally oriented electric and magnetic fields E and B. Depending on the
to see whether one part of a curve passes in
front of or behind another part of the curve. initial velocity given the particle at the origin, the path of the particle is either a space curve
For example, Figure 13 shows the curve of whose projection on the horizontal plane is the cycloid we studied in Section 10.1 [Fig-
Figure 12(b) as rendered by the tubeplot ure 12(a)] or a curve whose projection is the trochoid investigated in Exercise 40 in Sec-
command in Maple. tion 10.1 [Figure 12(b)].

B B

E E

t t
3 3
(a) r(t) = kt-sin t, 1-cos t, tl (b) r(t) = k t- 2 sin t, 1- 2 cos t, tl

FIGURE 12 FIGURE 13
Motion of a charged particle in
orthogonally oriented electric For further details concerning the physics involved and animations of the trajectories of
and magnetic fields the particles, see the following web sites:

■ www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/java/emField/emField.html
■ www.physics.ucla.edu/plasma-exp/Beam/

13.1 Exercises

1–2 Find the domain of the vector function. 3–6 Find the limit.

1. r共t兲 苷 具s4 ⫺ t 2 , e⫺3t, ln共t ⫹ 1兲 典

冉
3. lim e⫺3t i ⫹
tl0
t2
sin 2 t
j ⫹ cos 2t k 冊
t⫺2
2. r共t兲 苷
t⫹2
i ⫹ sin t j ⫹ ln共9 ⫺ t 2兲 k
4. lim
tl1
冉 t2 ⫺ t
t⫺1
i ⫹ st ⫹ 8 j ⫹
sin ␲ t
ln t
k 冊
; Graphing calculator or computer required 1. Homework Hints available at stewartcalculus.com

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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846 CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

5. lim
tl⬁
冓 1 ⫹ t2
1⫺t 2
, tan⫺1 t,
1 ⫺ e ⫺2t
t
冔 21. x 苷 t cos t,
22. x 苷 cos t,
y 苷 t, z 苷 t sin t, t 艌 0
y 苷 sin t, z 苷 1兾共1 ⫹ t 2 兲

冓 冔
23. x 苷 t, y 苷 1兾共1 ⫹ t 2 兲, z 苷 t2
t3 ⫹ t ⫺t
1
6. lim te , 3 , t sin 24. x 苷 cos t, y 苷 sin t, z 苷 cos 2t
tl⬁ 2t ⫺ 1 t
25. x 苷 cos 8t, y 苷 sin 8t, z 苷 e 0.8t, t艌0
26. x 苷 cos t, 2
y 苷 sin t, 2
z苷t
7–14 Sketch the curve with the given vector equation. Indicate with
an arrow the direction in which t increases.
7. r共t兲 苷 具 sin t, t典 8. r共t兲 苷 具t 3, t 2 典 27. Show that the curve with parametric equations x 苷 t cos t ,
9. r共t兲 苷 具 t, 2 ⫺ t, 2t 典 10. r共t兲 苷 具 sin ␲ t, t, cos ␲ t典 y 苷 t sin t, z 苷 t lies on the cone z 2 苷 x 2 ⫹ y 2, and use this
fact to help sketch the curve.
11. r共t兲 苷 具1, cos t, 2 sin t典 12. r共t兲 苷 t 2 i ⫹ t j ⫹ 2 k
28. Show that the curve with parametric equations x 苷 sin t ,
13. r共t兲 苷 t 2 i ⫹ t 4 j ⫹ t 6 k y 苷 cos t, z 苷 sin 2t is the curve of intersection of the surfaces
14. r共t兲 苷 cos t i ⫺ cos t j ⫹ sin t k z 苷 x 2 and x 2 ⫹ y 2 苷 1. Use this fact to help sketch the curve.
29. At what points does the curve r共t兲 苷 t i ⫹ 共2t ⫺ t 2 兲 k intersect
15–16 Draw the projections of the curve on the three coordinate the paraboloid z 苷 x 2 ⫹ y 2 ?
planes. Use these projections to help sketch the curve. 30. At what points does the helix r共t兲 苷 具sin t, cos t, t典 intersect
15. r共t兲 苷 具 t, sin t, 2 cos t典 16. r共t兲 苷 具t, t, t 典 2 the sphere x 2 ⫹ y 2 ⫹ z 2 苷 5 ?

; 31–35 Use a computer to graph the curve with the given vector
17–20 Find a vector equation and parametric equations for the line equation. Make sure you choose a parameter domain and view-
segment that joins P to Q. points that reveal the true nature of the curve.
17. P共2, 0, 0兲, Q共6, 2, ⫺2兲 18. P共⫺1, 2, ⫺2兲, Q共⫺3, 5, 1兲 31. r共t兲 苷 具cos t sin 2t, sin t sin 2t, cos 2t典

19. P共0, ⫺1, 1兲, Q( , ,

1 1 1
2 3 4 ) 20. P共a, b, c兲, Q共u, v, w兲 32. r共t兲 苷 具t 2, ln t, t典

33. r共t兲 苷 具t, t sin t, t cos t 典

21–26 Match the parametric equations with the graphs
34. r共t兲 苷 具t, e t, cos t 典
(labeled I–VI). Give reasons for your choices.
35. r共t兲 苷 具cos 2t, cos 3t, cos 4t典
I z II z

; 36. Graph the curve with parametric equations x 苷 sin t, y 苷 sin 2t,
z 苷 cos 4 t. Explain its shape by graphing its projections onto
x y
y the three coordinate planes.
x
; 37. Graph the curve with parametric equations
z z x 苷 共1 ⫹ cos 16t兲 cos t
III IV
y 苷 共1 ⫹ cos 16t兲 sin t
z 苷 1 ⫹ cos 16t

y Explain the appearance of the graph by showing that it lies on

x a cone.
y
x ; 38. Graph the curve with parametric equations
V z VI z
x 苷 s1 ⫺ 0.25 cos 2 10t cos t

y 苷 s1 ⫺ 0.25 cos 2 10t sin t

z 苷 0.5 c os 10t
x y Explain the appearance of the graph by showing that it lies on
x y a sphere.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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SECTION 13.2 DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS OF VECTOR FUNCTIONS 847

39. Show that the curve with parametric equations x 苷 t 2, 48. Two particles travel along the space curves
y 苷 1 ⫺ 3t, z 苷 1 ⫹ t 3 passes through the points (1, 4, 0) r1 共t兲 苷 具t, t 2, t 3 典 r2 共t兲 苷 具1 ⫹ 2t, 1 ⫹ 6t, 1 ⫹ 14t 典
and (9, ⫺8, 28) but not through the point (4, 7, ⫺6).
Do the particles collide? Do their paths intersect?
40– 44 Find a vector function that represents the curve of inter- 49. Suppose u and v are vector functions that possess limits as
section of the two surfaces. t l a and let c be a constant. Prove the following properties
40. The cylinder x ⫹ y 苷 4 and the surface z 苷 xy
2 2 of limits.
(a) lim 关u共t兲 ⫹ v共t兲兴 苷 lim u共t兲 ⫹ lim v共t兲
tla tla tla
41. The cone z 苷 sx 2 ⫹ y 2 and the plane z 苷 1 ⫹ y
(b) lim cu共t兲 苷 c lim u共t兲
tla tla
42. The paraboloid z 苷 4x 2 ⫹ y 2 and the parabolic
cylinder y 苷 x 2 (c) lim 关u共t兲 ⴢ v共t兲兴 苷 lim u共t兲 ⴢ lim v共t兲
tla tla tla

43. The hyperboloid z 苷 x 2 ⫺ y 2 and the cylinder x 2 ⫹ y 2 苷 1 (d) lim 关u共t兲 ⫻ v共t兲兴 苷 lim u共t兲 ⫻ lim v共t兲
tla tla tla

44. The semiellipsoid x 2 ⫹ y 2 ⫹ 4z 2 苷 4, y 艌 0, and the 50. The view of the trefoil knot shown in Figure 8 is accurate,
cylinder x ⫹ z 苷 1 2 2 but it doesn’t reveal the whole story. Use the parametric
equations
x 苷 共2 ⫹ cos 1.5t兲 cos t
; 45. Try to sketch by hand the curve of intersection of the circu- y 苷 共2 ⫹ cos 1.5t兲 sin t
lar cylinder x 2 ⫹ y 2 苷 4 and the parabolic cylinder z 苷 x 2.
Then find parametric equations for this curve and use these z 苷 sin 1.5t
equations and a computer to graph the curve. to sketch the curve by hand as viewed from above, with
gaps indicating where the curve passes over itself. Start by
; 46. Try to sketch by hand the curve of intersection of the showing that the projection of the curve onto the xy-plane
parabolic cylinder y 苷 x 2 and the top half of the ellipsoid has polar coordinates r 苷 2 ⫹ cos 1.5t and ␪ 苷 t, so r
x 2 ⫹ 4y 2 ⫹ 4z 2 苷 16. Then find parametric equations for varies between 1 and 3. Then show that z has maximum and
this curve and use these equations and a computer to graph minimum values when the projection is halfway between
the curve. r 苷 1 and r 苷 3.
; When you have finished your sketch, use a computer to
47. If two objects travel through space along two different draw the curve with viewpoint directly above and compare
curves, it’s often important to know whether they will with your sketch. Then use the computer to draw the curve
collide. (Will a missile hit its moving target? Will two from several other viewpoints. You can get a better impres-
aircraft collide?) The curves might intersect, but we need to sion of the curve if you plot a tube with radius 0.2 around
know whether the objects are in the same position at the the curve. (Use the tubeplot command in Maple or the
same time. Suppose the trajectories of two particles are tubecurve or Tube command in Mathematica.)
given by the vector functions
51. Show that lim t l a r共t兲 苷 b if and only if for every ␧ ⬎ 0
r1 共t兲 苷 具 t 2, 7t ⫺ 12, t 2 典 r2 共t兲 苷 具4t ⫺ 3, t 2, 5t ⫺ 6典 there is a number ␦ ⬎ 0 such that
for t 艌 0. Do the particles collide? ⱍ
if 0 ⬍ t ⫺ a ⬍ ␦ ⱍ then ⱍ r共t兲 ⫺ b ⱍ ⬍ ␧

13.2 Derivatives and Integrals of Vector Functions

Later in this chapter we are going to use vector functions to describe the motion of planets
and other objects through space. Here we prepare the way by developing the calculus of vec-
tor functions.

Derivatives
The derivative r⬘ of a vector function r is defined in much the same way as for real-
valued functions:

dr r共t ⫹ h兲 ⫺ r共t兲
1 苷 r⬘共t兲 苷 lim
dt hl0 h

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848 CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

if this limit exists. The geometric significance of this definition is shown in Figure 1. If the
l
points P and Q have position vectors r共t兲 and r共t ⫹ h兲, then PQ represents the vector
r共t ⫹ h兲 ⫺ r共t兲, which can therefore be regarded as a secant vector. If h ⬎ 0, the scalar
multiple 共1兾h兲共r共t ⫹ h兲 ⫺ r共t兲兲 has the same direction as r共t ⫹ h兲 ⫺ r共t兲. As h l 0, it
appears that this vector approaches a vector that lies on the tangent line. For this reason, the
vector r⬘共t兲 is called the tangent vector to the curve defined by r at the point P, provided
that r⬘共t兲 exists and r⬘共t兲 苷 0. The tangent line to C at P is defined to be the line through P
parallel to the tangent vector r⬘共t兲. We will also have occasion to consider the unit tangent
vector, which is

r⬘共t兲
T共t兲 苷
ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⱍ

z z
r(t+h)-r(t)
r(t+h)-r(t) h
rª(t)
Q
P P
Q
TEC Visual 13.2 shows an animation r(t) r(t)
of Figure 1. r(t+h) r(t+h)
C C
0 0

x y x y
FIGURE 1 (a) The secant vector PQ (b) The tangent vector rª(t)

The following theorem gives us a convenient method for computing the derivative of a
vector function r : just differentiate each component of r.

2 Theorem If r共t兲 苷 具 f 共t兲, t共t兲, h共t兲典 苷 f 共t兲 i ⫹ t共t兲 j ⫹ h共t兲 k, where f , t, and
h are differentiable functions, then

r⬘共t兲 苷 具 f ⬘共t兲, t⬘共t兲, h⬘共t兲典 苷 f ⬘共t兲 i ⫹ t⬘共t兲 j ⫹ h⬘共t兲 k

PROOF

1
r⬘共t兲 苷 lim 关r共t ⫹ ⌬t兲 ⫺ r共t兲兴
⌬t l 0 ⌬t

1
苷 lim 关具 f 共t ⫹ ⌬t兲, t共t ⫹ ⌬t兲, h共t ⫹ ⌬t兲典 ⫺ 具 f 共t兲, t共t兲, h共t兲典兴
⌬t l 0 ⌬t

苷 lim
⌬t l 0
冓 f 共t ⫹ ⌬t兲 ⫺ f 共t兲 t共t ⫹ ⌬t兲 ⫺ t共t兲 h共t ⫹ ⌬t兲 ⫺ h共t兲
⌬t
,
⌬t
,
⌬t
冔
苷 冓 lim
⌬t l 0
f 共t ⫹ ⌬t兲 ⫺ f 共t兲
⌬t
, lim
⌬t l 0
t共t ⫹ ⌬t兲 ⫺ t共t兲
⌬t
, lim
⌬t l 0
h共t ⫹ ⌬t兲 ⫺ h共t兲
⌬t
冔
苷 具 f ⬘共t兲, t⬘共t兲, h⬘共t兲典

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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SECTION 13.2 DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS OF VECTOR FUNCTIONS 849

v EXAMPLE 1
(a) Find the derivative of r共t兲 苷 共1 ⫹ t 3 兲 i ⫹ te⫺t j ⫹ sin 2t k.
(b) Find the unit tangent vector at the point where t 苷 0.
SOLUTION
(a) According to Theorem 2, we differentiate each component of r:

r⬘共t兲 苷 3t 2 i ⫹ 共1 ⫺ t兲e⫺t j ⫹ 2 cos 2t k

(b) Since r共0兲 苷 i and r⬘共0兲 苷 j ⫹ 2k, the unit tangent vector at the point 共1, 0, 0兲 is

r⬘共0兲 j ⫹ 2k 1 2
T共0兲 苷 苷 苷 j⫹ k
ⱍ r⬘共0兲 ⱍ
s1 ⫹ 4 s5 s5

y EXAMPLE 2 For the curve r共t兲 苷 st i ⫹ 共2 ⫺ t兲 j, find r⬘共t兲 and sketch the position
2 vector r共1兲 and the tangent vector r⬘共1兲.
SOLUTION We have
(1, 1)
r(1) 1 1
rª(1) r⬘共t兲 苷 i⫺j and r⬘共1兲 苷 i⫺j
2st 2
0 1 x The curve is a plane curve and elimination of the parameter from the equations
x 苷 st , y 苷 2 ⫺ t gives y 苷 2 ⫺ x 2, x 艌 0. In Figure 2 we draw the position vector
r共1兲 苷 i ⫹ j starting at the origin and the tangent vector r⬘共1兲 starting at the correspond-
FIGURE 2
ing point 共1, 1兲.
Notice from Figure 2 that the tangent vector
points in the direction of increasing t. (See v EXAMPLE 3 Find parametric equations for the tangent line to the helix with para-
Exercise 56.) metric equations
x 苷 2 cos t y 苷 sin t z苷t
at the point 共0, 1, ␲兾2兲.
SOLUTION The vector equation of the helix is r共t兲 苷 具2 cos t, sin t, t典 , so

r⬘共t兲 苷 具 ⫺2 sin t, cos t, 1典

The parameter value corresponding to the point 共0, 1, ␲兾2兲 is t 苷 ␲兾2, so the tangent
vector there is r⬘共␲兾2兲 苷 具⫺2, 0, 1典 . The tangent line is the line through 共0, 1, ␲兾2兲
parallel to the vector 具 ⫺2, 0, 1典 , so by Equations 12.5.2 its parametric equations are

␲
x 苷 ⫺2t y苷1 z苷 ⫹t
2

12
The helix and the tangent line in Example 3 are
shown in Figure 3. 8
z
4
_2
0 0 x
_1 _0.5
FIGURE 3 y 0 0.5 1 2

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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850 CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

In Section 13.4 we will see how r⬘共t兲 and r⬙共t兲 Just as for real-valued functions, the second derivative of a vector function r is the
can be interpreted as the velocity and accelera- derivative of r⬘, that is, r⬙ 苷 共r⬘兲⬘. For instance, the second derivative of the function in
tion vectors of a particle moving through space
Example 3 is
with position vector r共t兲 at time t.
r⬙共t兲 苷 具⫺2 cos t, ⫺sin t, 0典

Differentiation Rules
The next theorem shows that the differentiation formulas for real-valued functions have
their counterparts for vector-valued functions.

3 Theorem Suppose u and v are differentiable vector functions, c is a scalar,

and f is a real-valued function. Then
d
1. 关u共t兲 ⫹ v共t兲兴 苷 u⬘共t兲 ⫹ v⬘共t兲
dt
d
2. 关cu共t兲兴 苷 cu⬘共t兲
dt
d
3. 关 f 共t兲 u共t兲兴 苷 f ⬘共t兲 u共t兲 ⫹ f 共t兲 u⬘共t兲
dt
d
4. 关u共t兲 ⴢ v共t兲兴 苷 u⬘共t兲 ⴢ v共t兲 ⫹ u共t兲 ⴢ v⬘共t兲
dt
d
5. 关u共t兲 ⫻ v共t兲兴 苷 u⬘共t兲 ⫻ v共t兲 ⫹ u共t兲 ⫻ v⬘共t兲
dt
d
6. 关u共 f 共t兲兲兴 苷 f ⬘共t兲u⬘共 f 共t兲兲 (Chain Rule)
dt

This theorem can be proved either directly from Definition 1 or by using Theorem 2 and
the corresponding differentiation formulas for real-valued functions. The proof of Formula 4
follows; the remaining formulas are left as exercises.

PROOF OF FORMULA 4 Let

u共t兲 苷 具 f1共t兲, f2共t兲, f3共t兲典 v共t兲 苷 具 t1共t兲, t2共t兲, t3共t兲典
3
Then u共t兲 ⴢ v共t兲 苷 f1共t兲 t1共t兲 ⫹ f2共t兲 t2共t兲 ⫹ f3共t兲 t3共t兲 苷 兺 f 共t兲 t 共t兲
i苷1
i i

so the ordinary Product Rule gives

3 3
d d d
dt
关u共t兲 ⴢ v共t兲兴 苷
dt
兺 f 共t兲 t 共t兲 苷 兺
i苷1
i i
i苷1 dt
关 fi 共t兲 ti 共t兲兴

3
苷 兺 关 f ⬘共t兲 t 共t兲 ⫹ f 共t兲 t⬘共t兲兴
i苷1
i i i i

3 3
苷 兺 f ⬘共t兲 t 共t兲 ⫹ 兺 f 共t兲 t⬘共t兲
i苷1
i i
i苷1
i i

苷 u⬘共t兲 ⴢ v共t兲 ⫹ u共t兲 ⴢ v⬘共t兲

v ⱍ ⱍ
EXAMPLE 4 Show that if r共t兲 苷 c (a constant), then r⬘共t兲 is orthogonal to r共t兲 for
all t.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
97909_13_ch13_p848-857.qk_97909_13_ch13_p848-857 10/6/10 2:15 PM Page 851

SECTION 13.2 DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS OF VECTOR FUNCTIONS 851

SOLUTION Since
r共t兲 ⴢ r共t兲 苷 r共t兲 ⱍ ⱍ2
苷 c2

and c 2 is a constant, Formula 4 of Theorem 3 gives

d
0苷 关r共t兲 ⴢ r共t兲兴 苷 r⬘共t兲 ⴢ r共t兲 ⫹ r共t兲 ⴢ r⬘共t兲 苷 2r⬘共t兲 ⴢ r共t兲
dt

Thus r⬘共t兲 ⴢ r共t兲 苷 0, which says that r⬘共t兲 is orthogonal to r共t兲.

Geometrically, this result says that if a curve lies on a sphere with center the origin,
then the tangent vector r⬘共t兲 is always perpendicular to the position vector r共t兲.

Integrals
The definite integral of a continuous vector function r共t兲 can be defined in much the same
way as for real-valued functions except that the integral is a vector. But then we can express
the integral of r in terms of the integrals of its component functions f, t, and h as follows.
(We use the notation of Chapter 5.)

兺 r共t *兲 ⌬t
b
y r共t兲 dt 苷 lim i
a n l ⬁ i苷1

苷 lim
nl⬁
冋冉 兺 n

i苷1
冊 冉兺
f 共ti*兲 ⌬t i ⫹
i苷1
n
t共ti*兲 ⌬t j ⫹ 冊 冉兺 n

i苷1
h共ti*兲 ⌬t k 冊册
and so

y a
b
r共t兲 dt 苷 冉y 冊 冉y 冊 冉y 冊
a
b
f 共t兲 dt i ⫹
b

a
t共t兲 dt j ⫹
b

a
h共t兲 dt k

This means that we can evaluate an integral of a vector function by integrating each com-
ponent function.
We can extend the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to continuous vector functions as
follows:
b
y r共t兲 dt 苷 R共t兲]ba 苷 R共b兲 ⫺ R共a兲
a

where R is an antiderivative of r, that is, R⬘共t兲 苷 r共t兲. We use the notation x r共t兲 dt for indefi-
nite integrals (antiderivatives).

EXAMPLE 5 If r共t兲 苷 2 cos t i ⫹ sin t j ⫹ 2t k, then

y r共t兲 dt 苷 y 2 cos t dt冉 冊 冉y 冊 冉y 冊

i⫹ sin t dt j ⫹ 2t dt k

苷 2 sin t i ⫺ cos t j ⫹ t 2 k ⫹ C

where C is a vector constant of integration, and

␲兾2 ␲兾2 ␲2
y 0
[
r共t兲 dt 苷 2 sin t i ⫺ cos t j ⫹ t 2 k ] 0 苷 2i ⫹ j ⫹
4
k

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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852 CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

13.2 Exercises
2
1. The figure shows a curve C given by a vector function r共t兲. 13. r共t兲 苷 e t i ⫺ j ⫹ ln共1 ⫹ 3t兲 k
(a) Draw the vectors r共4.5兲 ⫺ r共4兲 and r共4.2兲 ⫺ r共4兲.
(b) Draw the vectors 14. r共t兲 苷 at cos 3t i ⫹ b sin 3 t j ⫹ c cos 3t k

r共4.5兲 ⫺ r共4兲 r共4.2兲 ⫺ r共4兲 15. r共t兲 苷 a ⫹ t b ⫹ t 2 c

and
0.5 0.2 16. r共t兲 苷 t a ⫻ 共b ⫹ t c兲
(c) Write expressions for r⬘共4兲 and the unit tangent vector T(4).
(d) Draw the vector T(4). 17–20 Find the unit tangent vector T共t兲 at the point with the given
y value of the parameter t.
R
C 17. r共t兲 苷 具te⫺t, 2 arctan t, 2e t 典 , t苷0
r(4.5) 18. r共t兲 苷 具t ⫹ 3t, t ⫹ 1, 3t ⫹ 4典,
3 2
t苷1
1 Q
r(4.2) 19. r共t兲 苷 cos t i ⫹ 3t j ⫹ 2 sin 2t k, t苷0
20. r共t兲 苷 sin t i ⫹ cos t j ⫹ tan t k,
2 2 2
t 苷 ␲兾4
P
r(4)
21. If r共t兲 苷 具 t, t 2, t 3 典 , find r⬘共t兲, T共1兲, r⬙共t兲, and r⬘共t兲 ⫻ r⬙共t兲.
0 1 x
22. If r共t兲 苷 具e 2t, e⫺2t, te 2t 典 , find T共0兲, r⬙共0兲, and r⬘共t兲 ⴢ r⬙共t兲.

2. (a) Make a large sketch of the curve described by the vector 23–26 Find parametric equations for the tangent line to the curve
function r共t兲 苷 具t 2, t 典 , 0 艋 t 艋 2, and draw the vectors with the given parametric equations at the specified point.
r(1), r(1.1), and r(1.1) ⫺ r(1). 23. x 苷 1 ⫹ 2 st , y 苷 t 3 ⫺ t, z 苷 t 3 ⫹ t ; 共3, 0, 2兲
(b) Draw the vector r⬘共1兲 starting at (1, 1), and compare it with
24. x 苷 e t, y 苷 te t, z 苷 te t ; 共1, 0, 0兲
2

the vector
r共1.1兲 ⫺ r共1兲 25. x 苷 e⫺t cos t, y 苷 e⫺t sin t, z 苷 e⫺t; 共1, 0, 1兲
0.1
26. x 苷 st 2 ⫹ 3 , y 苷 ln共t 2 ⫹ 3兲, z 苷 t ; 共2, ln 4, 1兲
Explain why these vectors are so close to each other in
length and direction.
27. Find a vector equation for the tangent line to the curve of inter-
3–8 section of the cylinders x 2 ⫹ y 2 苷 25 and y 2 ⫹ z 2 苷 20 at the
(a) Sketch the plane curve with the given vector equation. point 共3, 4, 2兲.
(b) Find r⬘共t兲.
28. Find the point on the curve r共t兲 苷 具2 cos t, 2 sin t, e t 典 ,
(c) Sketch the position vector r共t兲 and the tangent vector r⬘共t兲 for
0 艋 t 艋 ␲, where the tangent line is parallel to the plane
the given value of t.
s3 x ⫹ y 苷 1.
3. r共t兲 苷 具t ⫺ 2, t 2 ⫹ 1 典 , t 苷 ⫺1
CAS 29–31 Find parametric equations for the tangent line to the curve
4. r共t兲 苷 具t , t 典,
2 3
t苷1 with the given parametric equations at the specified point. Illus-
5. r共t兲 苷 sin t i ⫹ 2 cos t j, t 苷 ␲兾4 trate by graphing both the curve and the tangent line on a common
⫺t
screen.
6. r共t兲 苷 e i ⫹ e
t
j, t苷0
29. x 苷 t, y 苷 e ⫺t, z 苷 2t ⫺ t 2 ; 共0, 1, 0兲
7. r共t兲 苷 e i ⫹ e j,
2t t
t苷0
30. x 苷 2 cos t, y 苷 2 sin t, z 苷 4 cos 2t ; (s3 , 1, 2)
8. r共t兲 苷 共1 ⫹ cos t兲 i ⫹ 共2 ⫹ sin t兲 j, t 苷 ␲兾6
31. x 苷 t cos t, y 苷 t, z 苷 t sin t ; 共⫺␲, ␲, 0兲

9–16 Find the derivative of the vector function.

32. (a) Find the point of intersection of the tangent lines to the
9. r共t兲 苷 具t sin t, t 2, t cos 2t典 curve r共t兲 苷 具sin ␲ t, 2 sin ␲ t, cos ␲ t典 at the points where
t 苷 0 and t 苷 0.5.
10. r共t兲 苷 具tan t, sec t, 1兾t 典 2

; (b) Illustrate by graphing the curve and both tangent lines.

11. r共t兲 苷 t i ⫹ j ⫹ 2st k
33. The curves r1共t兲 苷 具t, t 2, t 3 典 and r2共t兲 苷 具sin t, sin 2t, t 典 inter-
1 t t2 sect at the origin. Find their angle of intersection correct to the
12. r共t兲 苷 i⫹ j⫹ k
1⫹t 1⫹t 1⫹t nearest degree.

; Graphing calculator or computer required CAS Computer algebra system required 1. Homework Hints available at stewartcalculus.com

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SECTION 13.3 ARC LENGTH AND CURVATURE 853

34. At what point do the curves r1共t兲 苷 具t, 1 ⫺ t, 3 ⫹ t 2 典 and 48. If u and v are the vector functions in Exercise 47, use For-
r2共s兲 苷 具 3 ⫺ s, s ⫺ 2, s 2 典 intersect? Find their angle of inter- mula 5 of Theorem 3 to find
section correct to the nearest degree.
d
关u共t兲 ⫻ v共t兲兴
35– 40 Evaluate the integral. dt
2 49. Find f ⬘共2兲, where f 共t兲 苷 u共t兲 ⴢ v共t兲, u共2兲 苷 具1, 2, ⫺1 典 ,
35. y 共t i ⫺ t 3 j ⫹ 3t 5 k兲 dt
0 u⬘共2兲 苷 具3, 0, 4典 , and v共t兲 苷 具t, t 2, t 3 典 .

36. y0
1
冉 4
1 ⫹ t2
j⫹
2t
1 ⫹ t2
k dt 冊 50. If r共t兲 苷 u共t兲 ⫻ v共t兲, where u and v are the vector functions in
Exercise 49, find r⬘共2兲.
␲兾2
37. y 共3 sin t cos t i ⫹ 3 sin t cos t j ⫹ 2 sin t cos t k兲 dt
2 2
0 51. Show that if r is a vector function such that r⬙ exists, then
2
38. y (t
1
2
i ⫹ tst ⫺ 1 j ⫹ t sin ␲ t k) dt d
关r共t兲 ⫻ r⬘共t兲兴 苷 r共t兲 ⫻ r⬙共t兲
dt
39. y 共sec 2
t i ⫹ t共t 2 ⫹ 1兲3 j ⫹ t 2 ln t k兲 dt

冉 冊
d
t 1 52. Find an expression for 关u共t兲 ⴢ 共v共t兲 ⫻ w共t兲兲兴.
te i ⫹ 2t
j⫹ dt
40. y 1⫺t s1 ⫺ t 2
k dt
d 1
53. If r共t兲 苷 0, show that
dt ⱍ
r共t兲 苷
r共t兲 ⱍ ⱍ
r共t兲 ⴢ r⬘共t兲.
ⱍ
41. Find r共t兲 if r⬘共t兲 苷 2t i ⫹ 3t 2 j ⫹ st k and r共1兲 苷 i ⫹ j.
42. Find r共t兲 if r⬘共t兲 苷 t i ⫹ e t j ⫹ te t k and r共0兲 苷 i ⫹ j ⫹ k.
[Hint: ⱍ r共t兲 ⱍ2 苷 r共t兲 ⴢ r共t兲]
43. Prove Formula 1 of Theorem 3. 54. If a curve has the property that the position vector r共t兲 is
always perpendicular to the tangent vector r⬘共t兲, show that
44. Prove Formula 3 of Theorem 3.
the curve lies on a sphere with center the origin.
45. Prove Formula 5 of Theorem 3.
55. If u共t兲 苷 r共t兲 ⴢ 关r⬘共t兲 ⫻ r⬙共t兲兴, show that
46. Prove Formula 6 of Theorem 3.
47. If u共t兲 苷 具 sin t, cos t, t典 and v共t兲 苷 具t, cos t, sin t典 , use u⬘共t兲 苷 r共t兲 ⴢ 关r⬘共t兲 ⫻ r⵮共t兲兴
Formula 4 of Theorem 3 to find
56. Show that the tangent vector to a curve defined by a vector
d function r共t兲 points in the direction of increasing t. [Hint: Refer
关u共t兲 ⴢ v共t兲兴
dt to Figure 1 and consider the cases h ⬎ 0 and h ⬍ 0 separately.]

13.3 Arc Length and Curvature

In Section 10.2 we defined the length of a plane curve with parametric equations x 苷 f 共t兲,
y 苷 t共t兲, a 艋 t 艋 b, as the limit of lengths of inscribed polygons and, for the case where
f ⬘ and t⬘ are continuous, we arrived at the formula

1
a
b
L 苷 y s关 f ⬘共t兲兴 2 ⫹ 关t⬘共t兲兴 2 dt 苷 y a
b
冑冉 冊 冉 冊 dx
dt
2
⫹
dy
dt
2
dt
z
The length of a space curve is defined in exactly the same way (see Figure 1). Suppose
that the curve has the vector equation r共t兲 苷 具 f 共t兲, t共t兲, h共t兲典 , a 艋 t 艋 b, or, equivalently,
the parametric equations x 苷 f 共t兲, y 苷 t共t兲, z 苷 h共t兲, where f ⬘, t⬘, and h⬘ are continuous. If
the curve is traversed exactly once as t increases from a to b, then it can be shown that its
length is
0
b
y 2 L 苷 y s关 f ⬘共t兲兴 2 ⫹ 关t⬘共t兲兴 2 ⫹ 关h⬘共t兲兴 2 dt
x a

FIGURE 1
The length of a space curve is the limit
of lengths of inscribed polygons.
苷 y a
b
冑冉 冊 冉 冊 冉 冊
dx
dt
2
⫹
dy
dt
2
⫹
dz
dt
2
dt

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854 CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

Notice that both of the arc length formulas 1 and 2 can be put into the more compact
form

ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⱍ dt
b
3 L苷y
a

because, for plane curves r共t兲 苷 f 共t兲 i ⫹ t共t兲 j,

ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⱍ 苷 ⱍ f ⬘共t兲 i ⫹ t⬘共t兲 j ⱍ 苷 s关 f ⬘共t兲兴 2 ⫹ 关 t⬘共t兲兴 2

and for space curves r共t兲 苷 f 共t兲 i ⫹ t共t兲 j ⫹ h共t兲 k,

ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⱍ 苷 ⱍ f ⬘共t兲 i ⫹ t⬘共t兲 j ⫹ h⬘共t兲 k ⱍ 苷 s关 f ⬘共t兲兴 2 ⫹ 关 t⬘共t兲兴 2 ⫹ 关h⬘共t兲兴 2

Figure 2 shows the arc of the helix v EXAMPLE 1 Find the length of the arc of the circular helix with vector equation
whose length is computed in Example 1. r共t兲 苷 cos t i ⫹ sin t j ⫹ t k from the point 共1, 0, 0兲 to the point 共1, 0, 2␲兲.
z
SOLUTION Since r⬘共t兲 苷 ⫺sin t i ⫹ cos t j ⫹ k, we have

ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⱍ 苷 s共⫺sin t兲 2 ⫹ cos 2 t ⫹ 1 苷 s2

(1, 0, 2π) The arc from 共1, 0, 0兲 to 共1, 0, 2␲兲 is described by the parameter interval 0 艋 t 艋 2␲
and so, from Formula 3, we have
(1, 0, 0) 2␲ 2␲

x
y
L苷y
0
ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⱍ dt 苷 y 0
s2 dt 苷 2s2 ␲

FIGURE 2 A single curve C can be represented by more than one vector function. For instance, the
twisted cubic

4 r1共t兲 苷 具t, t 2, t 3 典 1艋t艋2

could also be represented by the function

5 r2共u兲 苷 具e u, e 2u, e 3u 典 0 艋 u 艋 ln 2

where the connection between the parameters t and u is given by t 苷 e u. We say that Equa-
tions 4 and 5 are parametrizations of the curve C. If we were to use Equation 3 to com-
pute the length of C using Equations 4 and 5, we would get the same answer. In general, it
can be shown that when Equation 3 is used to compute arc length, the answer is indepen-
dent of the parametrization that is used.
Now we suppose that C is a curve given by a vector function

r共t兲 苷 f 共t兲i ⫹ t共t兲j ⫹ h共t兲k a艋t艋b

z where r⬘ is continuous and C is traversed exactly once as t increases from a to b. We define
its arc length function s by
s(t)

r(t)
C
6
t
s共t兲 苷 y r⬘共u兲 du 苷
a
ⱍ ⱍ y a
t
冑冉 冊 冉 冊 冉 冊
dx
du
2
⫹
dy
du
2
⫹
dz
du
2
du

r(a)
Thus s共t兲 is the length of the part of C between r共a兲 and r共t兲. (See Figure 3.) If we differ-
0 entiate both sides of Equation 6 using Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we
y
obtain
x
ds
FIGURE 3
7
dt
苷 r⬘共t兲 ⱍ ⱍ
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SECTION 13.3 ARC LENGTH AND CURVATURE 855

It is often useful to parametrize a curve with respect to arc length because arc length
arises naturally from the shape of the curve and does not depend on a particular coordinate
system. If a curve r共t兲 is already given in terms of a parameter t and s共t兲 is the arc length
function given by Equation 6, then we may be able to solve for t as a function of s: t 苷 t共s兲.
Then the curve can be reparametrized in terms of s by substituting for t : r 苷 r共t共s兲兲. Thus,
if s 苷 3 for instance, r共t共3兲兲 is the position vector of the point 3 units of length along the
curve from its starting point.

EXAMPLE 2 Reparametrize the helix r共t兲 苷 cos t i ⫹ sin t j ⫹ t k with respect to arc
length measured from 共1, 0, 0兲 in the direction of increasing t.
SOLUTION The initial point 共1, 0, 0兲 corresponds to the parameter value t 苷 0. From
Example 1 we have
ds
dt ⱍ
苷 r⬘共t兲 苷 s2 ⱍ

ⱍ ⱍ
t t
and so s 苷 s共t兲 苷 y r⬘共u兲 du 苷 y s2 du 苷 s2 t
0 0

Therefore t 苷 s兾s2 and the required reparametrization is obtained by substituting for t :

r共t共s兲兲 苷 cos(s兾s2 ) i ⫹ sin(s兾s2 ) j ⫹ (s兾s2 ) k

Curvature
A parametrization r共t兲 is called smooth on an interval I if r⬘ is continuous and r⬘共t兲 苷 0
on I. A curve is called smooth if it has a smooth parametrization. A smooth curve has no
sharp corners or cusps; when the tangent vector turns, it does so continuously.
TEC Visual 13.3A shows animated unit If C is a smooth curve defined by the vector function r, recall that the unit tangent vec-
tangent vectors, like those in Figure 4, for tor T共t兲 is given by
a variety of plane curves and space curves.
r⬘共t兲
T共t兲 苷
z r⬘共t兲 ⱍ ⱍ
and indicates the direction of the curve. From Figure 4 you can see that T共t兲 changes direc-
tion very slowly when C is fairly straight, but it changes direction more quickly when C
bends or twists more sharply.
0 The curvature of C at a given point is a measure of how quickly the curve changes direc-
C
y
x tion at that point. Specifically, we define it to be the magnitude of the rate of change of the
unit tangent vector with respect to arc length. (We use arc length so that the curvature will
FIGURE 4 be independent of the parametrization.)
Unit tangent vectors at equally spaced
points on C
8 Definition The curvature of a curve is

␬苷 冟 冟
dT
ds
where T is the unit tangent vector.

The curvature is easier to compute if it is expressed in terms of the parameter t instead

of s, so we use the Chain Rule (Theorem 13.2.3, Formula 6) to write

dT
dt
苷
dT ds
ds dt
and ␬苷 冟 冟 冟
dT
ds
苷
dT兾dt
ds兾dt 冟
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856 CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

ⱍ
But ds兾dt 苷 r⬘共t兲 from Equation 7, so ⱍ

9 ␬共t兲 苷 ⱍ T⬘共t兲 ⱍ
ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⱍ

v EXAMPLE 3 Show that the curvature of a circle of radius a is 1兾a.

SOLUTION We can take the circle to have center the origin, and then a parametrization is

r共t兲 苷 a cos t i ⫹ a sin t j

Therefore r⬘共t兲 苷 ⫺a sin t i ⫹ a cos t j and ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⱍ 苷 a

r⬘共t兲
so T共t兲 苷 苷 ⫺sin t i ⫹ cos t j
ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⱍ
and T⬘共t兲 苷 ⫺cos t i ⫺ sin t j

ⱍ ⱍ
This gives T⬘共t兲 苷 1, so using Equation 9, we have

␬共t兲 苷 ⱍ T⬘共t兲ⱍ 苷 1
ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⱍ a
The result of Example 3 shows that small circles have large curvature and large circles
have small curvature, in accordance with our intuition. We can see directly from the defi-
nition of curvature that the curvature of a straight line is always 0 because the tangent vec-
tor is constant.
Although Formula 9 can be used in all cases to compute the curvature, the formula given
by the following theorem is often more convenient to apply.

10 Theorem The curvature of the curve given by the vector function r is

␬共t兲 苷 ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⫻ r⬙共t兲 ⱍ

ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⱍ 3

ⱍ ⱍ
PROOF Since T 苷 r⬘兾 r⬘ and r⬘ 苷 ds兾dt, we have ⱍ ⱍ
ds
r⬘ 苷 r⬘ T 苷ⱍ ⱍ dt
T

so the Product Rule (Theorem 13.2.3, Formula 3) gives

d 2s ds
r⬙ 苷 2
T⫹ T⬘
dt dt

Using the fact that T ⫻ T 苷 0 (see Example 2 in Section 12.4), we have

r⬘ ⫻ r⬙ 苷 冉冊ds
dt
2
共T ⫻ T⬘兲

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97909_13_ch13_p848-857.qk_97909_13_ch13_p848-857 10/6/10 2:15 PM Page 857

SECTION 13.3 ARC LENGTH AND CURVATURE 857

ⱍ ⱍ
Now T共t兲 苷 1 for all t, so T and T⬘ are orthogonal by Example 4 in Section 13.2.
Therefore, by Theorem 12.4.9,

ⱍ r⬘ ⫻ r⬙ ⱍ 苷 冉 冊ⱍds
dt
2
T ⫻ T⬘ 苷 ⱍ 冉 冊ⱍds
dt
2
T ⱍⱍ T⬘ ⱍ 苷 冉 冊ⱍds
dt
2
T⬘ ⱍ

ⱍ T⬘ ⱍ 苷 ⱍ 共ds兾dt兲 ⱍ 苷 ⱍ ⱍ r⬘ ⱍ ⱍ
r⬘ ⫻ r⬙ r⬘ ⫻ r⬙
Thus 2 2

␬苷 ⱍ ⱍ 苷 ⱍ
T⬘ r⬘ ⫻ r⬙ ⱍ
and
ⱍ ⱍ
r⬘ ⱍ r⬘ ⱍ 3

EXAMPLE 4 Find the curvature of the twisted cubic r共t兲 苷 具 t, t 2, t 3 典 at a general point
and at 共0, 0, 0兲.
SOLUTION We first compute the required ingredients:

r⬘共t兲 苷 具1, 2t, 3t 2 典 r⬙共t兲 苷 具 0, 2, 6t典

ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⱍ 苷 s1 ⫹ 4t 2 ⫹ 9t 4

ⱍ ⱍ
i j k
r⬘共t兲 ⫻ r⬙共t兲 苷 1 2t 3t 2 苷 6t 2 i ⫺ 6t j ⫹ 2 k
0 2 6t

ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⫻ r⬙共t兲 ⱍ 苷 s36t 4 ⫹ 36t 2 ⫹ 4 苷 2s9t 4 ⫹ 9t 2 ⫹ 1

Theorem 10 then gives

␬共t兲 苷 ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⫻ r⬙共t兲 ⱍ 苷 2s1 ⫹ 9t ⫹ 9t 2 4

ⱍ r⬘共t兲 ⱍ 共1 ⫹ 4t ⫹ 9t 兲
3 2 4 3兾2

At the origin, where t 苷 0, the curvature is ␬共0兲 苷 2.

For the special case of a plane curve with equation y 苷 f 共x兲, we choose x as the
parameter and write r共x兲 苷 x i ⫹ f 共x兲 j. Then r⬘共x兲 苷 i ⫹ f ⬘共x兲 j and r⬙共x兲 苷 f ⬙共x兲 j.
Since i ⫻ j 苷 k and j ⫻ j 苷 0, it follows that r⬘共x兲 ⫻ r⬙共x兲 苷 f ⬙共x兲 k. We also have
ⱍ ⱍ
r⬘共x兲 苷 s1 ⫹ 关 f ⬘共x兲兴 2 and so, by Theorem 10,

11 ␬共x兲 苷 ⱍ
f ⬙共x兲 ⱍ
关1 ⫹ 共 f ⬘共x兲兲2 兴 3兾2

EXAMPLE 5 Find the curvature of the parabola y 苷 x 2 at the points 共0, 0兲, 共1, 1兲,
and 共2, 4兲.
SOLUTION Since y⬘ 苷 2 x and y⬙ 苷 2, Formula 11 gives

␬共x兲 苷
y⬙ ⱍ ⱍ 苷
2
关1 ⫹ 共y⬘兲2 兴 3兾2 共1 ⫹ 4x 2 兲3兾2

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858 CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

The curvature at 共0, 0兲 is 共0兲 苷 2. At 共1, 1兲 it is 共1兲 苷 2兾5 3兾2 ⬇ 0.18. At 共2, 4兲 it is
共2兲 苷 2兾17 3兾2 ⬇ 0.03. Observe from the expression for 共x兲 or the graph of  in Fig-
ure 5 that 共x兲 l 0 as x l . This corresponds to the fact that the parabola appears
to become flatter as x l .
y
y=≈
2

FIGURE 5 y=k(x)
The parabola y=≈ and its 0 1 x
curvature function

The Normal and Binormal Vectors

We can think of the normal vector as indicating At a given point on a smooth space curve r共t兲, there are many vectors that are orthogonal
the direction in which the curve is turning at to the unit tangent vector T共t兲. We single out one by observing that, because T共t兲 苷 1 for ⱍ ⱍ
each point. all t, we have T共t兲 ⴢ T共t兲 苷 0 by Example 4 in Section 13.2, so T共t兲 is orthogonal to T共t兲.
Note that T共t兲 is itself not a unit vector. But at any point where  苷 0 we can define the
T(t)
B(t) principal unit normal vector N共t兲 (or simply unit normal) as

T共t兲
N共t兲 苷
N(t)
ⱍ T共t兲 ⱍ
The vector B共t兲 苷 T共t兲  N共t兲 is called the binormal vector. It is perpendicular to both T
FIGURE 6 and N and is also a unit vector. (See Figure 6.)

Figure 7 illustrates Example 6 by showing the EXAMPLE 6 Find the unit normal and binormal vectors for the circular helix
vectors T, N, and B at two locations on the
helix. In general, the vectors T, N, and B, start- r共t兲 苷 cos t i  sin t j  t k
ing at the various points on a curve, form a set
of orthogonal vectors, called the TNB frame,
that moves along the curve as t varies. This SOLUTION We first compute the ingredients needed for the unit normal vector:
TNB frame plays an important role in the
branch of mathematics known as differential r共t兲 苷 sin t i  cos t j  k ⱍ r共t兲 ⱍ 苷 s2
geometry and in its applications to the motion
of spacecraft. r共t兲 1
T共t兲 苷 苷 共sin t i  cos t j  k兲
z ⱍ r共t兲 ⱍs2
T
1 1
B T共t兲 苷
s2
共cos t i  sin t j兲 ⱍ T共t兲 ⱍ 苷 s2
N
T共t兲
T N共t兲 苷 苷 cos t i  sin t j 苷 具cos t, sin t, 0典
N
B
ⱍ T共t兲 ⱍ
This shows that the normal vector at any point on the helix is horizontal and points
y toward the z-axis. The binormal vector is

冋 册
x
i j k
FIGURE 7 1 1
B共t兲 苷 T共t兲  N共t兲 苷 sin t cos t 1 苷 具sin t, cos t, 1典
s2 s2
cos t sin t 0

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SECTION 13.3 ARC LENGTH AND CURVATURE 859

TEC Visual 13.3B shows how the TNB frame The plane determined by the normal and binormal vectors N and B at a point P on a
moves along several curves. curve C is called the normal plane of C at P. It consists of all lines that are orthogonal
to the tangent vector T. The plane determined by the vectors T and N is called the osculating
plane of C at P. The name comes from the Latin osculum, meaning “kiss.” It is the plane
that comes closest to containing the part of the curve near P. (For a plane curve, the oscu-
lating plane is simply the plane that contains the curve.)
The circle that lies in the osculating plane of C at P, has the same tangent as C at P, lies
on the concave side of C (toward which N points), and has radius 苷 1兾 (the reciprocal
of the curvature) is called the osculating circle (or the circle of curvature) of C at P. It is
the circle that best describes how C behaves near P; it shares the same tangent, normal, and
curvature at P.

v EXAMPLE 7 Find the equations of the normal plane and osculating plane of the helix
in Example 6 at the point P共0, 1, 兾2兲.
Figure 8 shows the helix and the osculating SOLUTION The normal plane at P has normal vector r共 兾2兲 苷 具1, 0, 1典 , so an equa-
plane in Example 7. tion is

冉 冊
z
1共x  0兲  0共y  1兲  1 z  苷0 or z苷x
z=_x+π2 2 2

The osculating plane at P contains the vectors T and N, so its normal vector is
P T  N 苷 B. From Example 6 we have

x
y B共t兲 苷
1
s2
具sin t, cos t, 1典 B 冉冊 冓2
苷
1
s2
, 0,
1
s2
冔
FIGURE 8
A simpler normal vector is 具1, 0, 1典 , so an equation of the osculating plane is

1共x  0兲  0共y  1兲  1 z  冉 冊 2
苷0 or z 苷 x 
2

EXAMPLE 8 Find and graph the osculating circle of the parabola y 苷 x 2 at the origin.
y SOLUTION From Example 5, the curvature of the parabola at the origin is 共0兲 苷 2. So
osculating y=≈ the radius of the osculating circle at the origin is 1兾 苷 12 and its center is (0, 12 ). Its equa-
circle tion is therefore
x 2  ( y  12 ) 苷 14
2

For the graph in Figure 9 we use parametric equations of this circle:

1
2
x 苷 12 cos t y 苷 12  12 sin t
0 1 x
We summarize here the formulas for unit tangent, unit normal and binormal vectors, and
FIGURE 9 curvature.

r共t兲 T共t兲
T共t兲 苷 N共t兲 苷 B共t兲 苷 T共t兲  N共t兲
ⱍ r共t兲 ⱍ ⱍ T共t兲 ⱍ
冟 冟
TEC Visual 13.3C shows how the osculating
circle changes as a point moves along a curve.
苷
dT
苷 ⱍ T共t兲 ⱍ 苷 ⱍ r共t兲  r 共t兲 ⱍ
ds ⱍ r共t兲 ⱍ ⱍ r共t兲 ⱍ 3

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97909_13_ch13_p858-867.qk_97909_13_ch13_p858-867 10/6/10 2:15 PM Page 860

860 CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

13.3 Exercises

1–6 Find the length of the curve. 17–20

(a) Find the unit tangent and unit normal vectors T共t兲 and N共t兲.
1. r共t兲 苷 具t, 3 cos t, 3 sin t典, 5 t 5 (b) Use Formula 9 to find the curvature.
2. r共t兲 苷 具 2t, t 2, 3 t 3 典 ,
1
0 t 1 17. r共t兲 苷 具t, 3 cos t, 3 sin t典

3. r共t兲 苷 s2 t i  e t j  et k, 0 t 1 18. r共t兲 苷 具 t 2, sin t  t cos t, cos t  t sin t典 , t 0

4. r共t兲 苷 cos t i  sin t j  ln cos t k, 0 t 兾4 19. r共t兲 苷 具s2 t, e t, e t 典

20. r共t兲 苷 具 t, 2 t 2, t 2 典
1
5. r共t兲 苷 i  t 2 j  t 3 k, 0 t 1

6. r共t兲 苷 12t i  8t 3兾2 j  3t 2 k, 0 t 1

21–23 Use Theorem 10 to find the curvature.

7–9 Find the length of the curve correct to four decimal places. 21. r共t兲 苷 t 3 j  t 2 k
(Use your calculator to approximate the integral.) 22. r共t兲 苷 t i  t 2 j  e t k
7. r共t兲 苷 具t , t , t 典,
2 3 4
0 t 2
23. r共t兲 苷 3t i  4 sin t j  4 cos t k
8. r共t兲 苷 具t, e t, te t 典 , 1 t 3

9. r共t兲 苷 具sin t, cos t, tan t典 , 0 t 兾4 24. Find the curvature of r共t兲 苷 具t 2, ln t, t ln t典 at the
point 共1, 0, 0兲.

25. Find the curvature of r共t兲 苷 具 t, t 2, t 3 典 at the point (1, 1, 1).

; 10. Graph the curve with parametric equations x 苷 sin t,
y 苷 sin 2t, z 苷 sin 3t. Find the total length of this curve ; 26. Graph the curve with parametric equations x 苷 cos t,
correct to four decimal places. y 苷 sin t, z 苷 sin 5t and find the curvature at the
point 共1, 0, 0兲.
11. Let C be the curve of intersection of the parabolic cylinder
x 2 苷 2y and the surface 3z 苷 xy. Find the exact length of C
27–29 Use Formula 11 to find the curvature.
from the origin to the point 共6, 18, 36兲.
27. y 苷 x 4 28. y 苷 tan x 29. y 苷 xe x
12. Find, correct to four decimal places, the length of the curve
of intersection of the cylinder 4x 2  y 2 苷 4 and the plane
x  y  z 苷 2. 30–31 At what point does the curve have maximum curvature?
What happens to the curvature as x l  ?
13–14 Reparametrize the curve with respect to arc length mea-
sured from the point where t 苷 0 in the direction of increasing t. 30. y 苷 ln x 31. y 苷 e x

13. r共t兲 苷 2t i  共1  3t兲 j  共5  4t兲 k

32. Find an equation of a parabola that has curvature 4 at the
14. r共t兲 苷 e 2t cos 2t i  2 j  e 2t sin 2t k origin.
33. (a) Is the curvature of the curve C shown in the figure greater
15. Suppose you start at the point 共0, 0, 3兲 and move 5 units at P or at Q ? Explain.
along the curve x 苷 3 sin t, y 苷 4t, z 苷 3 cos t in the (b) Estimate the curvature at P and at Q by sketching the
positive direction. Where are you now? osculating circles at those points.

16. Reparametrize the curve y P

冉 冊
C
2 2t
r共t兲 苷 1 i 2 j
t 1
2
t 1
1

with respect to arc length measured from the point (1, 0) in Q

the direction of increasing t. Express the reparametrization in
0 1 x
its simplest form. What can you conclude about the curve?

; Graphing calculator or computer required CAS Computer algebra system required 1. Homework Hints available at stewartcalculus.com

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
97909_13_ch13_p858-867.qk_97909_13_ch13_p858-867 10/8/10 1:30 PM Page 861

SECTION 13.3 ARC LENGTH AND CURVATURE 861

47– 48 Find the vectors T, N, and B at the given point.

; 34–35 Use a graphing calculator or computer to graph both the
curve and its curvature function ␬共x兲 on the same screen. Is the 47. r共t兲 苷 具 t 2, 3 t 3, t 典, (1, 23 , 1)
2

graph of ␬ what you would expect?

48. r共t兲 苷 具 cos t, sin t, ln cos t典 , 共1, 0, 0兲
34. y 苷 x 4 ⫺ 2x 2 35. y 苷 x ⫺2

49–50 Find equations of the normal plane and osculating plane

CAS 36–37 Plot the space curve and its curvature function ␬共t兲.
of the curve at the given point.
Comment on how the curvature reflects the shape of the curve.
49. x 苷 2 sin 3t , y 苷 t, z 苷 2 cos 3t ; 共0, ␲, ⫺2兲
36. r共t兲 苷 具t ⫺ sin t, 1 ⫺ cos t, 4 cos共t兾2兲典, 0 艋 t 艋 8␲
37. r共t兲 苷 具 te t, e⫺t, s2 t 典 , ⫺5 艋 t 艋 5 50. x 苷 t, y 苷 t 2, z 苷 t 3; 共1, 1, 1兲

38–39 Two graphs, a and b, are shown. One is a curve y 苷 f 共x兲 ; 51. Find equations of the osculating circles of the ellipse
and the other is the graph of its curvature function y 苷 ␬共x兲. 9x 2 ⫹ 4y 2 苷 36 at the points 共2, 0兲 and 共0, 3兲. Use a graph-
Identify each curve and explain your choices. ing calculator or computer to graph the ellipse and both
osculating circles on the same screen.
38. 39.
y y ; 52. Find 1equations of the osculating circles of the parabola
y 苷 2 x 2 at the points 共0, 0兲 and (1, 2 ). Graph both osculating
1

a a circles and the parabola on the same screen.

b b
53. At what point on the curve x 苷 t 3, y 苷 3t , z 苷 t 4 is the
normal plane parallel to the plane 6x ⫹ 6y ⫺ 8z 苷 1?
x x
CAS 54. Is there a point on the curve in Exercise 53 where the
osculating plane is parallel to the plane x ⫹ y ⫹ z 苷 1?
CAS 40. (a) Graph the curve r共t兲 苷 具sin 3t, sin 2t, sin 3t典 . At how [Note: You will need a CAS for differentiating, for simplify-
many points on the curve does it appear that the curva- ing, and for computing a cross product.]
ture has a local or absolute maximum?
55. Find equations of the normal and osculating planes of the
(b) Use a CAS to find and graph the curvature function.
curve of intersection of the parabolic cylinders x 苷 y 2 and
Does this graph confirm your conclusion from part (a)?
z 苷 x 2 at the point 共1, 1, 1兲.
41. The graph of r共t兲 苷 具 t ⫺ sin t, 1 ⫺ 32 cos t, t 典 is shown in
3
CAS 2
Figure 12(b) in Section 13.1. Where do you think the curva- 56. Show that the osculating plane at every point on the curve
ture is largest? Use a CAS to find and graph the curvature r共t兲 苷 具 t ⫹ 2, 1 ⫺ t, 12 t 2 典 is the same plane. What can you
function. For which values of t is the curvature largest? conclude about the curve?
42. Use Theorem 10 to show that the curvature of a plane para- 57. Show that the curvature ␬ is related to the tangent and
metric curve x 苷 f 共t兲, y 苷 t共t兲 is normal vectors by the equation

␬苷 ⱍ x᝽ ᝽y᝽ ⫺ y᝽x᝽᝽ ⱍ dT
苷 ␬N
关x᝽ 2 ⫹ y᝽ 2 兴 3兾2 ds
where the dots indicate derivatives with respect to t . 58. Show that the curvature of a plane curve is ␬ 苷 d␾兾ds , ⱍ ⱍ
where ␾ is the angle between T and i ; that is, ␾ is the angle
43– 45 Use the formula in Exercise 42 to find the curvature. of inclination of the tangent line. (This shows that the
43. x 苷 t 2, y 苷 t3 definition of curvature is consistent with the definition for
plane curves given in Exercise 69 in Section 10.2.)
44. x 苷 a cos ␻ t, y 苷 b sin ␻ t
45. x 苷 e cos t, t
y 苷 e t sin t 59. (a) Show that d B兾ds is perpendicular to B.
(b) Show that d B兾ds is perpendicular to T.
(c) Deduce from parts (a) and (b) that d B兾ds 苷 ⫺ ␶ 共s兲N for
46. Consider the curvature at x 苷 0 for each member of the some number ␶ 共s兲 called the torsion of the curve. (The
family of functions f 共x兲 苷 e cx. For which members is ␬ 共0兲 torsion measures the degree of twisting of a curve.)
largest? (d) Show that for a plane curve the torsion is ␶ 共s兲 苷 0.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.