Chapter 5

ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS, JOURNALISM AND NEWS MEDIA

TOPIC 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF ADVERTISING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS

Advertising

Definition: Advertising is a strategic practice used by businesses to create public awareness

about products, services, or ideas. It is a one-way, impersonal communication process paid
for by marketers.

Goals: The primary goal is to market products and generate sales, focusing on short-term
objectives like product promotion.

Target Audience: Primarily targets potential customers.

Forms of Advertising

Advertising can take a number of forms, including advocacy, comparative,

cooperative, direct mail, informational, institutional, outdoor, and persuasive advertising.

1. Advocacy Advertising

Advocacy advertising is normally thought of as any advertisement, message, on

communication regarding economic, political, or social issues. The advertising campaign is
designed to persuade public opinion regarding a specific issue important in the public arena.
The ultimate goal of advocacy advertising usually relates to the passage of pending state or
federal legislation. All non-profit groups use some form of advocacy advertising to influence
the public’s attitude towards a particular issue. One of the largest and most powerful non-
profit advocacy groups is the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP). The AARP
fights to protect social programs such as Medicare and Social Security for senior citizens by
encouraging its members to write their legislators, using television advertisements to appeal
to emotions, and publishing a monthly newsletter describing recent state and federal
legislative action. Other major non-profit advocacy groups include the environmental
organization Green-peace, Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), and the National Rifle
Association (NRA).

2. Comparative Advertising
Comparative advertising compares one brand directly or indirectly with one or more
competing brands. This advertising technique is very common and is used by nearly every
major industry, including airlines and automobile manufacturers. One drawback of
comparative advertising is that customers have become more skeptical about claims made by
a company about its competitors because accurate information has not always been provided,
thus making the effectiveness of comparison advertisements questionable. In addition,
companies that engage in comparative advertising must be careful not to misinform the
public about a competitor’s product. Incorrect or misleading information may trigger a
lawsuit by the aggrieved company or regulatory action by a governmental agency such as the
Federal Trade Commission (FTC).

3. Cooperative Advertising

Cooperative advertising is a system that allows two parties to share advertising costs.
Manufacturers and distributors, because of their shared interest in selling the product, usually
use this cooperative advertising technique. An example might be when a soft-drink
manufacturer and a local grocery store split the cost of advertising the manufacturer’s soft
drinks; both the manufacturer and the store benefit from increased store traffic and its
associated sales. Cooperative advertising is especially appealing to small storeowners who,
on their own, could not afford to advertise the product adequately.
4. Direct-Mail Advertising

Catalogues, flyers, letters, and postcards are just a few of the direct-mail advertising
options. Direct-mail advertising has several advantages, including detail of information,
personalization, selectivity, and speed. But while direct mail has advantages, it carries an
expensive per-head price, is dependent on the appropriateness of the mailing list, and is
resented by some customers, who consider it “junk mail.”

5. Informational Advertising

In informational advertising, which is used when new product is first being

introduced, the emphasis is on promoting the product name, benefits, and possible uses. Car
manufacturers used this strategy when sport utility vehicles (SUVs) were first introduced.

6. Institutional Advertising

Institutional advertising takes a much broader approach, concentrating on the benefits,

concept, idea, or philosophy of a particular industry. Companies often use it to promote
image-building activities, such as environmentally friendly business practices or new
community-based programs that it sponsors. Institutional advertising is closely related to
public relations, since both are interested in promoting a positive image of the company to the
public. As an example, a large lumber company may develop an advertising theme around its
practice of planting trees in areas where they have just been harvested. A theme of this nature
keeps the company’s name in a positive light with the general public because the replanting
of trees is viewed positively by most people.

7. Outdoor Advertising

Billboards and messages painted on the side of buildings are common forms of outdoor
advertising, which is often used when quick, simple ideas are being promoted. Since
repetition is the key to successful promotion, outdoor advertising is most effective when
located along heavily travelled city streets and when the product being promoted can be
purchased locally. Only about 1 percent of advertising is conducted in this manner.

8. Persuasive Advertising
Persuasive advertising is used after a product has been introduced to customers. The primary
goal is for a company to build selective demand for its product. For example, automobile
manufacturers often produce special advertisements promoting the safety features of their
vehicles. This type of advertisement could allow automobile manufactures to charge more for
their products because of the perceived higher quality the safety features afford

Impacts of Advertising

1. Economic Impacts
• Stimulation of Demand: Advertising increases consumer demand, which can lead to
economic growth by boosting sales and creating jobs.
• Job Creation: It supports employment by contributing to sectors like media and
marketing.
• Economic Contribution: Advertising contributes significantly to GDP and supports
local economies.
2. Social Impacts
• Consumer Awareness: Advertising informs consumers about available products and
services, potentially improving their standard of living.
• Promotion of Social Causes: Public service announcements can raise awareness
about important social issues.
• Consumerism and Materialism: Some argue that advertising promotes consumerism
and materialism, potentially leading to negative societal effects.
3. Negative Impacts
• Overconsumption: Advertising can lead to overconsumption and increased work
hours to afford more goods, potentially reducing overall well-being.
• Offensive Content: Some advertisements can be offensive or inappropriate,
impacting societal values.

Public Relations

Definition: Public Relations (PR) involves informing, educating, and creating understanding
through knowledge. It evaluates public attitudes and executes programs to address concerns.

Goals: PR aims to generate brand awareness and improve organizational reputation, focusing
on long-term objectives like building a positive brand image.
Target Audience: Targets a broader audience, including stakeholders, media, legislators, and
the general public.
Impacts of public relations

1) Positive Impacts
• Enhanced Brand Reputation and Trust: Public relations helps build credibility and
trust by consistently communicating a company’s values and successes.
• Increased Visibility and Brand Awareness: Effective PR strategies enhance
visibility through media relations and social media, leading to greater brand
recognition.
 • Improved Customer Relationships: PR fosters deeper connections with customers
through storytelling and engaging content, promoting loyalty.
• Support for Sales and Marketing: PR complements marketing efforts by creating a
receptive audience for marketing messages.
2) Internal and External Benefits
• Staff Morale and Productivity: Positive internal communication improves staff
morale, leading to increased productivity and better customer service.
• Community Engagement: PR helps businesses connect with local communities,
fostering trust and acceptance.
3) Crisis Management
• Damage Control: PR plays a crucial role in managing crises by influencing public
opinion and maintaining a positive brand image during challenging times.
Both advertising and public relations are crucial for engaging the target audience and
building brand awareness, but they differ in their approach, goals, and control over
messaging.
TOPIC 2: PERSUATION TECHNIQUES IN ADVERTISING AND PR CAMPAIGNS

Persuasion Techniques in Advertising

i. Emotional Appeal (Pathos): Advertisements often evoke emotions such as happiness,

fear, or guilt to influence consumer behaviour.
ii. Scarcity Principle: Creating urgency by limiting availability. The scarcity principle
makes it seem like your product or service has increased value from limited availability.
For example, some marketers will use a countdown clock on an online shopping bag page
or send push notifications that customers only have so much time to take advantage of an
exclusive offer.
iii. Bandwagon effect: The bandwagon appeal relies mostly on social pressure or the belief
that “everyone else is doing it.” When a company appeals to popular trends, customers
will start to feel like they may be missing out if they don’t purchase from your brand.
An example of the bandwagon appeal could be promoting a restaurant as having
healthy or organic options because of the common belief that eating healthier is better for you
iv. Celebrity Association: Using famous figures to endorse products. The celebrity
testimony is ideal for making your brand seem desirable or glamorous. Lots of people
look up to celebrities or influencers. If a celebrity says that they use your brand’s makeup,
people are more likely to buy from your brand.
v. Humour: Making ads memorable and enjoyable. For instance, Ufone ads.
vi. Snob appeal: Instead of making the customer feel like they can be like everyone else—as
seen with the bandwagon appeal—the snob appeal makes the customer feel like they can
be superior to everyone else. This type of persuasive advertising speaks to the customer’s
uniqueness, implying that they could become part of an elite group of people with good
taste or high status. Many brands that use this advertising tactic legitimately sell lavish,
high-end products, like luxury cars, clothes, or jewellery. However, most companies don’t
 need to sell luxury products to use the snob appeal tactic. Some examples could be a baby
food commercial implying that the viewer will be a great, attentive parent if they use their
product, or a perfume brand implying that their product will make the customer smell
better than anyone else in the room.
vii. Plain folks: Plain folks is a persuasion technique that has been around for decades by
using regular, “plain” people to promote something. This tactic reverses the snob appeal
by saying “we’re just like you” instead of saying “you’ll be just like us.” Ads that use
plain folks show every-day people using regular products or services, implying that the
brand is reliable, common, and relatable.

Sometimes, celebrities and influencers use this tactic to demonstrate that they’re
regular people just like you who need groceries, cleaning supplies, a reliable insurance
company, or—in the case of our ethos example—a takeout meal.

viii. Second person approach: This advertising approach can be applied to a variety of
persuasive ad types. Using second person pronouns—you, your, and yours—helps you
connect to your audience on a personal level. It projects your idea of their persona back
onto them to help them visualize how they should engage with your brand.

Public Relations Campaigns Persuasion Techniques

1. Reciprocity
• People feel obligated to return favours or gestures of goodwill.
• Used in PR to build relationships through valuable content or exclusive offers.
• Creates sense of indebtedness that can lead to desired actions or support.
• Examples include free samples, complimentary consultations, or helpful resources.
• Builds positive brand associations and encourages audience engagement.
2. Social proof
• People tend to follow actions and opinions of others, especially peers.
• Leveraged in PR through testimonials, user-generated content, and influencer
partnerships.
• Builds credibility and trust by showcasing widespread adoption or approval.
• Effective for product endorsements, brand awareness campaigns, and community
building.
3. Consistency
• People strive to align their actions with previous commitments or beliefs.
• Used in PR to encourage small initial commitments that lead to larger actions.
• Builds brand loyalty through consistent messaging and values alignment.
• Applied in long-term campaigns, customer retention efforts, and advocacy programs.
• Tactics include loyalty programs, public pledges, and gradual engagement strategies.
4. Authority
• People tend to comply with requests from perceived authority figures.
• Utilized in PR through expert endorsements, thought leadership, and industry
recognition.
 • Establishes credibility and trust in specific domains or subject areas.
• Effective for B2B communications, crisis management, and reputation building.
• Examples include executive statements, industry awards, and professional
certifications.
5. Liking
• People are more likely to be persuaded by individuals or brands they like.
• Applied in PR through personable brand voices, relatable spokespersons, and
community engagement
• Builds emotional connections and positive associations with target audiences.
• Effective for brand personality development, influencer marketing, and customer
relations.
• Tactics include behind-the-scenes content, personal stories, and shared value
messaging

Both advertising and PR use persuasion techniques to influence audiences, but PR

often focuses more on building long-term relationships and credibility.

TOPIC 4: PRINCIPLES OF JOURNALISM: ACCURACY, FAIRNESS AND

OBJECTIVITY
The principles of journalism—accuracy, fairness, and objectivity—are foundational to
ethical reporting and maintaining public trust. Here's how these principles guide journalistic
practices:

1. Principle of Accuracy

The principle of accuracy in journalism is fundamental to maintaining

credibility and trust with audiences. It involves ensuring that the information
presented is precise, truthful, and free from errors. Here’s an elaboration of this
principle:

Definition of Accuracy

Accuracy in journalism refers to the precision and truthfulness of the information

reported. It ensures that facts are correctly presented, supported by strong evidence, and
attributed to reliable sources.
Key Components of Accuracy

a) Verification and Fact-Checking: Journalists must verify information through reliable

sources and fact-checking to ensure accuracy. This includes confirming facts with
multiple independent sources.
b) Transparency: Clearly state what is known and what is not, avoiding speculation or
rumor. Transparency helps maintain trust by acknowledging limitations in knowledge.
c) Corrections: Promptly publish corrections when errors are discovered to maintain
credibility and integrity.

Adapting to the Digital Age of Information

• Develop strategies to combat the spread of misinformation on social media platforms
• Educate readers on media literacy and how to identify credible news sources
• Utilize data journalism techniques to analyse and present complex information accurately.
• Implement fact-checking plugins or features on news websites to enhance reader trust.
• Collaborate with tech companies to develop AI-powered tools for detecting fake news and
deepfakes.

Importance of Accuracy

Accuracy is crucial for maintaining the credibility of journalism. It helps build trust
with audiences and ensures that news organizations remain reliable sources of information.
Inaccurate reporting can lead to misinformation and undermine public confidence in
journalism.

2. Principle of fairness
The principle of fairness in journalism is a cornerstone of ethical reporting, ensuring
that stories are balanced and unbiased. Here’s an elaboration of this principle:
Definition of Fairness

Fairness in journalism means presenting all sides of an issue accurately and without
bias. It involves exploring different perspectives and reporting findings in a way that allows
readers to form their own opinions based on a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Key Components of Fairness

a) Balanced Reporting: Journalists should strive to include diverse viewpoints in their

stories, though it’s not always necessary to present every side in every piece.
b) Avoiding Bias: Reporters must be aware of their own biases and ensure they do not
influence the selection of sources or the emphasis placed on certain aspects of a story.
c) Right of Reply: Offering individuals or groups the opportunity to respond to allegations
before publication is crucial for fairness.
d) Language and Tone: The language and tone used should not distort facts or manipulate
public debate.
Challenges in Achieving Fairness

• Selectivity: Critics argue that journalists often focus on extreme views or powerful
voices, potentially marginalizing other perspectives.
• Personal Prejudices: Journalists must overcome personal prejudices to ensure fairness in
their reporting.
3. Principle of Objectivity

The principle of objectivity in journalism is a foundational concept aimed at ensuring

that news reporting is neutral, unbiased, and factual. It involves presenting information in a
way that allows audiences to form their own opinions based on verified facts, without the
influence of personal biases or emotions.
Definition of Objectivity

Objectivity in journalism refers to the practice of reporting news in a manner that is impartial,
unbiased, and free from personal feelings or opinions. It involves presenting facts without
distortion or influence from the journalist’s own views, allowing audiences to form their own
opinions based on the information provided

Key Components of Objectivity

1. Truthfulness: Commitment to reporting accurate and truthful information without

skewing facts to fit a particular agenda.
2. Neutrality: Stories are reported in an unbiased, even-handed manner, avoiding personal
opinions or feelings.
3. Detachment: Journalists approach issues with a dispassionate attitude, presenting facts
without emotional influence.

Challenges to Objectivity

• Personal Biases: Journalists must recognize and manage their own biases to maintain
objectivity.
• External Pressures: Media outlets may face pressure from political or economic
interests, which can challenge objectivity.
• Subjectivity vs. Objectivity: There is ongoing debate about whether true objectivity is
achievable or desirable, with some advocating for more subjective reporting.

Importance of Objectivity

Objectivity is crucial for maintaining public trust in journalism. It ensures that news is
presented in a way that allows audiences to make informed decisions based on factual
information. Despite challenges, striving for objectivity remains a core ethical principle in
journalism.

These principles are essential for maintaining the integrity and credibility of journalism.

TOPIC 5: NEWS VALUES AND NEWS SELECTION PROCESS

Defining News values

News values are general guidelines or criteria which determine how much
prominence a media outlet gives a news story. They explain why a story interests its
audience; and how editors and other journalists decide that one piece of information is news
while another is not.

• News Values
 The 8 typical news values are: impact, timeliness, prominent, close to home, conflict,

Unexpected, current and human interest.

1. Impact:

The more people involved in an event, the stronger the story. Whether it is a peaceful
protest that draws tens of Thousands of people, or a 72 vehicle pile-up on the Motorway, it
has impact. Likewise, the number of people affected by such events will also influence the
story’s newsworthiness.

In 2022, Pakistan suffered the worst floods in its history. One third of the country– An
area greater than the land Mass of the United kingdom Was under water, with a loss of 1,569
lives, and affecting 33 Million people.

2. Timeliness
News gets out of date quickly. If it happened recently, it is timely. What is regarded as
“recent” depends upon the publication cycle of the news medium itself. On a television news
channel events that happened during the past half hour are timely. These may include a
multiple car crash or a serious fire. By contrast, in the monthly parish magazine events that
took place over the past 30 days are timely. Timeliness is crucial. The audience become
involved because they witness the event as it develops.

3. Prominence

Well-known people such as politicians and celebrities can make the news even when
their actions are trivial. Because of their media prominence, people feel a personal connection
with them. In November 2021, little known politician, Liz truss, was photographed riding a
tank when visiting British troops in Estonia. No-one took much notice. Less than a year later,
this photograph went viral once she became British prime minister. Famous places and
companies also attract interest.

4. Proximity or closer to home

Events occurring within the newspaper circulation or broadcast area are more likely to
be newsworthy. They are closer to home. So, local newspapers and regional television news
programmes will be particularly alert to news that falls within their broadcast area. Further
afield, the UK press will almost certainly ignore 2,000 job losses in Taiwan. However, a mere
20 redundancies in Cambridge may well feature on the front page of the local newspaper.
5. Conflict

If it bleeds it leads, so says the old newspaper adage. An event that results in blood,
death or tragedy usually leads. For instance, it could be about a terrorist attack, murder, or
even a parliamentary dispute. On a more mundane level, news about people or organisations
at odds with each other arouses curiosity. People want to know what lies behind the conflict.
The story could be about banal events such as the falling-out of two celebrities. Or it could be
about more serious issues, such as a labour dispute. Conflict adds drama. Drama generates
interest.

6. Unexpectedness or bizarre

Strange, odd or wacky stories are likely to find their way into the news because they
deviate sharply from what you would expect. The unusual entertains. Dog bites man is not
news. Man bites dog is. On April 10, 2018 the Daily Telegraph ran an article about a man
biting a dog — to defend his own dog!
7. Current or trending stories

Social media has enabled people to share opinions with a far wider audience. When a
phrase has been used multiple times, for example, on X (formally Twitter), it becomes a
‘trending topic’. Journalists can capitalise on the current conversation by checking social
media trends and finding out what is holding people’s interest. Stories that are already under
the public spotlight, and being talked about, are more likely to be newsworthy. For instance,
global warming continues to be a hot topic as it has a direct impact on the global population.
Extreme weather events in 2024, such as the Europe’s hottest temperatures, devastating
Spanish floods, and hurricane winds in the UK have all played their part.

8. Human interest

People are interested in people. Certain events stir our emotions. Both a dying child
receiving a donated organ and families reuniting after fifty years are good examples of human
interest stories. In July 2022, the scorching record breaking temperatures hit the UK with
disastrous effect but there were also instances of human altruism. In Ashill in Norfolk, fields
caught fire causing a wildfire to sweep through and destroy eleven homes, and damaging
many more. Many lost everything they owned, but those affected have said that “the kindness
of the community has been overwhelming” and “kept them upright.” (Source, BBC News).
People’s everyday concerns strike a chord, for instance stories about food, health and
housing. Information about schools, work and money also grab public attention.

News Selection

Information arrives in the newsroom minute by minute. It comes from a wide range of
sources by way of press releases, phone calls, social media, meetings and research. However,
a newspaper has a limited number of pages and column inches to report the day’s events. A
news broadcaster has only so many minutes. Restricted by time and space, a news editor
cannot report all that is of interest. So, they must be selective, filter out information that lacks
newsworthiness and retain stories that most interest their audience. Thus, anyone wishing to
get their story reported in the news media must understand what ingredients are needed for a
good newsworthy story.

The selection of news is influenced by several factors, including audience

preferences, journalistic practices, and technological advancements. Here are key insights:

• Audience Selectivity: People choose news based on personal interests, political

affiliations, and relevance to their lives. Online platforms have amplified this by
enabling selective exposure and incidental news consumption.
• News Values: Journalists rely on criteria such as timeliness, relevance, and
unpredictability to determine what becomes news. Organizational priorities, audience
demographics, and commercial considerations also shape these decisions.
• Technological Impact: Digital tools and algorithms now play a significant role in
curating news. For instance, Bayesian models can identify trending topics across
multiple sources without relying on user history or clicks.
• Gatekeeping: Editors and journalists act as gatekeepers, filtering stories based on
editorial policies, resource constraints, and ideological leanings. Gatekeeping
decisions can be influenced by various factors
• Commercial pressures (advertisers' preferences, market competition)
• Political considerations (government influence, self-censorship)
• Resource constraints (limited staff, budget restrictions)
• These factors can potentially lead to biases and limitations in the representation of
diverse
• perspectives

These factors collectively influence how news is selected and presented to audiences.

TOPIC 6: CHALLENGES FACING CONTEMPORARY JOURNALISM: FAKE

NEWS, BIAS, AND ETHICAL DILEMMAS

Contemporary journalism faces significant challenges, including fake news, bias, and ethical
dilemmas. Key issues include:
Fake News and Misinformation: Social media platforms have amplified the spread of fake
news, making it difficult for journalists to maintain credibility. The pressure to publish
quickly in a 24-hour news cycle often leads to errors or unchecked information.

Bias and Polarization: Media outlets are increasingly aligning with political ideologies to
attract fragmented audiences. This politicization undermines objectivity and erodes public
trust in journalism.

Ethical Dilemmas: Journalists face ethical challenges in balancing speed with accuracy,
navigating conflicts of interest, and addressing the rise of sponsored content that blurs the
line between news and advertising.

Major ethical dilemmas faced by today’s news media

o Sensationalism versus factual reporting

In a highly competitive industry, sensationalism—prioritizing shock value over substance—

can become a tempting strategy for attracting viewership. Stories are sometimes exaggerated
or framed provocatively to increase engagement, often at the expense of accuracy. This
practice undermines public trust and diminishes the credibility of the media outlet.

o Maintaining objectivity amidst bias

Objectivity is a cornerstone of ethical journalism, yet achieving it can be challenging.

Personal, political, or corporate biases may seep into reporting, skewing the narrative. In
some cases, media outlets are accused of aligning with specific ideologies or agendas, leading
to partial and misleading coverage. Striving for neutrality remains an ongoing battle.

o Balancing public interest and privacy

Journalists often face ethical conflicts when reporting on private matters involving public
figures or ordinary citizens. While the public has a right to information, the media must also
respect individuals’ privacy and dignity. Striking the right balance is critical to avoiding harm
and maintaining ethical integrity.

Economic Pressures: Declining ad revenues and circulation have forced many outlets to
adopt subscription models or cut staff, threatening independent journalism.

Impact of AI: While AI aids in combating misinformation and streamlining workflows, it

also risks flooding the media landscape with low-quality content, further reducing trust in
journalism.

These challenges demand innovation and adherence to journalistic principles to preserve

credibility and relevance.

FURTHER READING

https://journalism.university/media-ethics-and-laws/ethical-dilemmas-in-news-media-
today/