Mass selection, Hybridization, Pureline selection, Pedigree,

Backcross, Bulk and Hardy Wienberg Law

Mass Selection

In mass selection, a large number of plants of similar phenotype are selected and their seeds are
mixed together to constitute the new variety. Generally, the selected plants are not subjected to progeny
test. Thus, a variety developed through mass selection would have considerable genetic variation
and, consequently, further mass selection or Pureline selection may be done in such a variety at a later
time.
Procedure of mass selection:
1. First year – a large number of phenotypically similar plants are selected for vigour, plant type, disease
resistance and other characters. Seeds from the selected plants are composited to raise the next
generation.
2. Second year – the composited seed is planted in a preliminary yield trial along with standard varieties
as check. The variety from which the selection was made should also be included as check to
determine if there has been an improvement due to selection.
3. 3rd - 5th year- coordinated yield trial.
4. 6th year – the promising variety in coordinated trial is recommended by the competent variety release
committee for release.

Applications of mass selection:

1. Purification of existing Pureline varieties – Pureline tend to become variable with time due to
mechanical mixture, natural hybridization and mutation. Therefore, purity of Pureline variety has to be
maintained through regular mass selection. On the same principle, nucleus seed of Pureline is
produced through mass selection.
2. Improvement of desi/local variety – Mass selection is useful in improvement of desi/local variety of
SPC. The local varieties are mixture of several Purelines which may differ for several characters. Many of
the component Purelines would be inferior in performance that lowers the performance of local variety.
Elimination of such poor plant types improves the performance and uniformity of the original variety.

Additionally, local varieties are under cultivation for generations and are adapted to local environment
and are stale in performance. Mass selection improves the local variety without adversely affecting its
adaptability and stability as the new variety is still composite of several superior purelines present in the
original population.

Merits and
demerits Merits
1. Since a large number of plants are selected, the adaptation of the original variety is not changed.
2. Mass selection retains considerable genetic variability in the new variety. Therefore, another round
of mass selection after few years would be effective in improving the variety in future.
3. It is conducted on homozygous and heterogeneous population and no crossing is done to generate
new variability. So, extensive and prolonged yield trials are not necessary. This reduces time and cost in
developing new variety.
4. It is less demanding and hence breeders can devote more time to other breeding programmes.
Demerits
1. Variety developed by mass selection show variation and is not as uniform as Pureline varieties.
2. The improvement through mass selection is generally less than that could be achieved through Pureline
selection
3. In absence of progeny test, it is not possible to determine if the selected plants are homozygous.
Even in SPC, some degree of cross pollination does occur and some of the selected plants may be
heterozygous. It is also not known if the phenotypic superiority of selected plant is due to environment or
genotype.
4. Varieties developed by mass selection are more difficult to identify than Pureline varieties in seed
certification programme.
5. Mass selection utilizes the variability already present in a variety/population and does not generate
new variability.
 Hybridization: Aims and objectives, Types of hybridization
Hybridization: The mating/crossing of two plants/lines of dissimilar genotype is known as
hybridization.

Objectives of hybridization:
The chief objective of hybridization is to create genetic variation.
The other objectives for hybridization may be –
1. Combination breeding: Transfer of one/more oligogenic and/or polygenic traits into a single variety
from another variety or varieties.
Backcross method and pedigree method can be used for combination breeding.
2. Transgressive breeding: Improvement in the yield or its contributing traits through transgressive
segregation. Transgressive segregation is appearance of individuals in F 2 or subsequent generation
that are superior to both the parents. The cause for transgressive segregation is the accumulation of
favourable genes from both the parents as a result of recombination.
Pedigree method and its modification and population approach are suited for high recovery of
transgressive segregants and hence transgressive breeding.
3. Hybrid variety: The F1 between two pure/inbred lines is more vigorous than the parents. This is
called as hybrid variety. Genetic divergence and combining ability are two major considerations for
a successful hybrid variety.

Types of Hybridization:

1. Intervarietal hybridization: Hybridization between two strains/varieties/races of the same species.

This is also known as intraspecific hybridization. Such hybridization is most commonly used in plant
breeding. Intervarietal hybridization may be simple or complex depending upon the number of parents
involved.
a. Simple cross/ single cross: Two parents are crossed to produce F1.
E.g. A×B F1 (A×B).
b. Complex cross/ convergent cross: more than two parents are crossed to produce the F 1 hybrid. Such
cross ring together genes from several parents into a single variety.
Three-way cross- when F1 is crossed to the third parent.
E.g. F1 (A×B) × C F1 [(A×B) × C]

Double cross- when two F1s are crossed together.

E.g. F1 (A×B) × F1 (A×B) F1 [(A×B) × (C×D)]

2. Distant hybridization: refers to the hybridization between different species of the same genus or
different genera.
a. Interspecific / Intrageneric- when two species of the same genus are hybridized.
b. Intergeneric- when two species belonging to the different genera are hybridized.

Objective of the distant hybridization is to transfer one or few simply inherited traits like resistance for
diseases or biotic or abiotic stresses.

Handling of Segregating Generations

Various methods for handling of segregating generations (F2 and beyond) are:
1. Pedigree method
2. Bulk method
3. Backcross method

Pedigree method
In pedigree method, individual plants are selected from F2 and subsequent generation, their progenies are
grown and a record of parent-progeny relationship (pedigree) is maintained. Pedigree method was
first outlined by Love in 1927.
Procedure:
1. Hybridization - the selected parents are crossed to produce single or complex cross.
2. F1 generation – F1 seeds are space planted to produce maximum number of seeds.
3 F2 generation – F2 seeds are space-planted to facilitate selection. Usually, 1-10 % selection intensity is
practiced. When closely related varieties are crossed, the number of F 2 individuals selected would be
considerably smaller then when the parents are unrelated by descent. When the objective is to breed for
quantitative traits, a relatively larger number of F 2 plants would be selected. Selection in F2 is based on
the traits that are simply inherited.
4. F3 – F5 generation – Individual plant progenies are space planted in F 3 and F4 generation. Selection is
practiced from within and between the progeny row. If two or more progenies are coming from the
same progeny row are similar, only one of them may be retained. In the F 5 generation, variation within
the progeny row vanishes and the focus for selection should be between progeny row.
5. F6 generation – Individual selected progenies in F 5 are planted in multi-row for visual comparison
among progeny rows. Superior progenies are bulk harvested as they have become homozygous. Progenies
showing segregation are discarded unless the segregants are outstanding. Under such situation, individual
plant is selected.
6. F7 generation – PYT with 3 replications are conducted along with standard check. Progenies are
evaluated for plant height, lodging and disease resistance flowering and maturity date, yield and quality
traits with respect to the check. 2-5 outstanding lines superior to the check would be advanced to the co-
ordinated yield trials.
7. F8 – F10 generation – The superior lines are tested in replicated yield trials at several locations.
These are evaluated for plant height, lodging and disease resistance flowering and maturity date, yield and
quality traits. A line that is superior to the best commercial variety included in the trial as check in yield
and other traits is identified for release as new variety.
8. F11 generation – when the strain is likely to be released as variety, the breeder usually multiplies its
seed during the last year in trial. Breeder has the responsibility to supply the breeder seed for production
of foundation seed. Thus, in F11 to F12 the seed of the new variety will be multiplied for the distribution
to the farmers.
Pedigree Record
Maintenance of a detailed record of the relationship between the selected plants and their progenies is
called as pedigree record or pedigree.
Advantage-
1. Each progeny in every generation can be traced back to the F2 plant from which it has
originated.
2. It helps to find out that two individuals may share some allele in common if they are related by
decent.
3. Allelic composition of the final population could be predicted if there is such history in its ancestry.

Applications of pedigree method

1. Most commonly used method for selection from segregating generation of cross in Self Pollinated Crops.
2. Combination breeding
3. Transgressive breeding
Merits and demerits of pedigree method
Merits
1 Provides maximum opportunity for the breeder to use his skills for selection of desirable plants from
segregating generations.
2. Transgressive segregants for yield and other quantitative traits may be recovered in addition to the
improvement in specific trait.
3. The breeder may often be able to obtain information about inheritance of qualitative trait from
pedigree record.
4. Plants progenies with visible defects and weaknesses are eliminated at an early stage.
Demerits
1. Maintenance of pedigree record is tedious and time-consuming job.
2. Selection among and within a large number of progenies in every generation is laborious that limit
the number of crosses a breeder can handle.
3. Success of this method depends on skill of the breeder.
4. No opportunity for the natural selection to influence the population.
5. Selection for yield in F2/F3 is ineffective. If care is not taken to retain a sufficient number of
progenies, valuable genotypes may be lost in the early segregating generations.
 Bulk Method
In bulk method, F2 and subsequent generations are harvested in bulk to raise the next generation until the
genotypes attain Homozygosity or the favourable environment for selection is met, following which
individual plants are selected and evaluated.
Procedure –
1. Hybridization - the selected parents are crossed to produce single or complex cross.
2. F1 generation - F1 generation is space planted and harvested in bulk.
3. F2 – F6 generation - F2 – F6 generation are planted at commercial seed rate and spacings and
harvested in bulk. During bulking period, natural selection alters the genotypic frequencies in the
population. Artificial selection is generally not done.
4. F7 generation – plants are space planted, seeds from phenotypically superior plants are harvested
separately.
5. F8 generation – individual plant progenies are grown in single/multiple rows. Superior plant progenies
are harvested in bulk.

6. F9 generation – PYT is conducted with standard commercial check. Progenies are evaluated for
plant height, lodging and disease resistance flowering and maturity date, yield and quality traits
with respect to the check. 2-5 outstanding lines superior to the check would be advanced to the co-
ordinated yield trials.
7. F10 – F12 generation - The superior lines are tested in replicated yield trials at several locations.
These are evaluated for plant height, lodging and disease resistance, flowering and maturity date, yield
and quality traits. A line that is superior to the best commercial variety included in the trial as check in
yield and other traits is identified for release as a new variety.
8. F13 generation - when the strain is likely to be released as variety, the breeder usually multiplies its
seed during the last year in trial. Breeder has the responsibility to supply the breeder seed for production
of foundation seed.
Applications of Bulk Method:

Bulk method has three prominent applications:

1. Isolation of homozygous lines
2. Waiting for the opportunity for selection and
3. To allow natural selection to alter genetic composition of population.

1. Isolation of homozygous lines: Using this method homozygous lines are isolated with minimum
effort and expense. Individual plant selection starts with end of bulking period and a Preliminary Yield
Trial can be conducted in second year after the end of bulking period.

2. Waiting for the opportunity for selection: Environment favourable for selection usually do not occur
every year, and this method allow segregating generations to be bulked until its commencement without
loss of any potential genotype as artificial selection is usually not practiced during bulking period. Many a
times, segregating generations are bulked for want of favourable environment and subsequently, the
population is handled according to pedigree method. This method is called as mass-pedigree method of
Harlan.
3. To allow natural selection to alter genetic composition of population: Long bulking generation
provides an opportunity for natural selection to act on their genetic composition. It is assumed that
natural selection would favour higher yielding and eliminate the poorer yielding ones. Therefore,
from a population maintained as a bulk for long period, one may expect to isolate superior lines at a much
higher frequencies than that from F 2 of the same cross. Bulk method, particularly when bulking period is
quite long, was termed as evolutionary method of breeding by Suneson as it allows natural selection to
act on the population and change its genotypic composition.

Merits and demerits of bulk method

Merits
1. Natural selection increases the frequencies of superior genotypes.
2. Since large population is grown, there is greater chance of isolation of transgressive segregants than
in the pedigree method.
3. Individual plant selection is done after population attains homozygosity, therefore, selection for
quantitative traits is more effective.
4. It is particularly suited for small grain crops, since, they are planted at high crop densities.
5. It is suitable for studies on the survival of genes and genotypes in the population.
6. Simple, convenient and inexpensive method allows breeder to focus on other breeding projects.

Demerits
1. Natural selection becomes more important only after F 10 and bulking may have to be done up to F20 or
more which is considerably longer than the time taken in pedigree method.
2. Short term bulks are useful for the isolation of homozygous lines but natural selection has little effect
on such bulk population.
3. Provides little opportunity for breeder to exercise his skill.
4. Information on inheritance of character cannot be obtained.
5. In some cases, natural selection may act against agronomically desirable types.
6. Off-season crops and green house cannot be used to advance the generation since such environment
is entirely different from that in the target location.

Single seed descent method

SSD is modification of bulk method. In SSD, a single seed from each of the plant from F2 and subsequent
generations are bulked to raise the next generation. In F 5/F6 individual plant selection is done and
individual plant progenies are grown in next generation. Further, selection is done mainly among the
progenies. Superior progeny rows are bulk harvested to conduct PYT in F 7/F8 and co-ordinated trials are
initiated in F8/F9.
Objective - Rapid advancement of generation of crosses.
Application – To obtain RILs from selected cross in minimum
time. Advantage-
1. Advances the generation with maximum possible speed in conventional breeding.
2. Require very little space, effort and labour.

3. Makes best use of greenhouse and off-season nursery facilities.

4. End population represent random sample of homozygous genotypes derived from F2 population.
Disadvantage-
1. Does not permit any form of selection during the segregating generation.
2. In each successive generation, the population size becomes progressively smaller due to poor
germination, death of plant and other factors.

Backcross Method

A cross between a hybrid and one of its parents is known as backcross. In backcross method of
breeding, the hybrid and the progenies in the subsequent generation are repeatedly backcrossed to one of
the parents of the F1. As a result, the genotype of backcross progeny becomes increasingly similar to that
of the parent to which the backcrosses are made.
Requirements of a backcross programme-
1. A suitable recurrent / recipient parent- popular variety of the local area lacking in one/two characters
(susceptible to disease, insect/pest etc.)
2. A suitable donor parent / non recurrent parent - parent having the trait lacking in the recurrent parent in high
intensity/ governed by oligogenes.
3. High heritability of trait.
4. Sufficient number of backcrosses - to recover Recurrent Parent Genotype.
Procedure of backcross method:
Transfer of a dominant gene.
Assume two parents A and B.
A- High yielding and widely adapted wheat variety but susceptibility to stem rust.
B- Wheat variety resistant to stem rust.
1. Hybridization: A is crossed to B.
2. F1 generation: F1 plants are backcrossed to variety A.
3. BC1: Resistant and Susceptible genotypes in BC1 would be 1:1. Rust resistant plants are selected and
backcrossed to variety A.
4. BC2-BC5: In each backcross generation resistant plants are selected and backcrossed to the recurrent
parent A.
5. BC6 generation: On an average, BC6 plants will have 99% genes from variety A. Rust resistant
plants are selected and selfed, their seeds are harvested separately.
6. BC6F2: Individual plant progenies from the selfed seeds are grown. Rust resistant plants similar to the
plant type of variety A are selected and their selfed seeds are harvested separately.
7. BC6F3: Individual plant progenies are grown. Progenies homozygous for rust resistance and similar to
the plant type of variety A are harvested in bulk.
8. Yield test- The new variety is tested in PYT along with the variety A as check. Ordinarily, the new
variety would be identical to variety A, so, detailed yield tests are generally not required.

Merits and Demerits of backcross method

Merits
1. The genotype of new variety is nearly identical with that of the Recurrent Parent, except for the gene
transferred. Thus, outcome of backcross programme is known in advance.
2. It is not necessary to test the variety developed by backcross method in extensive yield tests.
3. Much smaller population is needed in this method than in pedigree.
4. Defects could be rectified without affecting its performance and adaptability.
5. This is the only method for interspecific gene transfer and for the transfer of cytoplasm.
Demerits
1. The new variety cannot be superior to the recurrent parent except for the character transferred.
2. Undesirable genes closely linked with the gene being transferred may also be transferred to the new
variety producing linkage drag.
 3. Repeated hybridization is difficult and time taking.
4. By the time backcross programme improves it, the Recurrent Parent may have been replaced by
other varieties superior in the yielding ability.

Hardy-Weinberg law

Two scientists, G. H. Hardy (1908) & W. Weinberg (1909) gave a law referred to as Hardy-
Weinberg law. The law states that in a random mating population the gene and genotypic
frequencies remains constant generation after generation if there is no selection, mutation,
migration and random genetic drift. Alternatively, Hardy-Weinberg law advocates constancy of gene
and genotypic frequency over the generations in a random mating population in absence of
evolutionary forces.

Any population of diploid individuals may have utmost three genotypic classes, AA, Aa and aa (single
locus-biallelic system). Assume the frequency of allele ‘A’ in that population is ‘p’ and that of ‘a’ is ‘q’.
Then, the population is said to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium when frequencies of the three
genotypes, AA, Aa and aa are p2, 2pq and q2, respectively.

Factors that disturb Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:

1. Selection: differential rate of reproduction is called selection. Strength of Selection is measured by

selection coefficient (s) and fitness (w). Selection differential is proportion of reduction in gametic
contribution of a genotype with respect to the most fit one. The fitness of a genotype is proportion of
gametic contribution of that genotype towards the next generation in relation to that of the most fit
individual (w=1). Selection differential and fitness are complementary to each other such that s+w =1.

2. Mutation: mutation is the ultimate source of all the variation present in biological systems. It acts on
existing alleles and creates entirely new alleles that alter the gene frequency. But, since the mutation rate
is generally very low (10-6), the effects of mutation on gene frequency would be detectable only after
large number of generations. Therefore, in breeding populations such effects are often ignored.

3. Migration: migration is the movement of individuals from a population into a different population,
and participation in the reproduction of this population. Migration introduces new allele into the
population and alters the frequency of existing alleles. In plant breeding, a suitable example of migration
is represented by wide hybridization.
4. Random genetic drift: random genetic drift is a random change in gene frequency due to sampling
error. This is more pronounced in small population. The ultimate result of random genetic drift is fixation
of alleles (p=1 or 0). In small population all the genes are expected to be fixed in course of time. Genetic
drift in breeding population can be prevented either by growing infinite population which is impractical or
by resorting to phenotypic disassortative mating which is not economically feasible as well.

Applications of Hardy-Weinberg law:

1. Calculation of frequencies of recessive and dominant genes in a population.

2. Calculate the frequency of carriers/heterozygotes in a population.
3. To test if a population is in agreement of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

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