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"Captain Cook" redirects here. For other uses, see Captain Cook (disambiguation) and James Cook
(disambiguation).

Captain James Cook FRS (7 November [O.S. 27

James Cook
October] 1728 – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer,
FRS
cartographer and naval officer famous for his three voyages
between 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean and to New
Zealand and Australia in particular. He made detailed maps of
Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific,
during which he achieved the first recorded European contact
with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian
Islands and the first recorded circumnavigation of New
Zealand.

Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and

joined the Royal Navy in 1755. He served during the Seven
Years' War and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of
Portrait by Nathaniel Dance-Holland, c. 1775
the entrance to the St. Lawrence River during the siege of
Born 7 November [O.S. 27
Quebec, which brought him to the attention of the Admiralty
October] 1728
and the Royal Society. This acclaim came at a crucial moment Marton, Yorkshire, Kingdom
for the direction of British overseas exploration, and it led to his of Great Britain
commission in 1768 as commander of HMS Endeavour for the Died 14 February 1779 (aged 50)
first of three Pacific voyages. Kealakekua Bay in present-
day Hawaii, U.S.
In these voyages, Cook sailed thousands of miles across Nationality British
largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from Education Postgate School, Great Ayton
New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail Occupation(s) Explorer, cartographer and
and on a scale not previously charted by Western explorers. naval officer
He surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and Spouse Elizabeth Batts (m. 1762)
coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a Children 6
combination of seamanship, superior surveying and Military career
cartographic skills, physical courage, and an ability to lead Branch Royal Navy
men in adverse conditions. Service years 1755–1779
Rank Captain (Post-captain)
During his third voyage in the Pacific, Cook encountered the
Battles/wars Seven Years' War
Hawaiian islands in 1779. He was killed while attempting to
Conquest of New France
take hostage Kalaniʻōpuʻu, chief of the island of Hawaii, during
Signature
a dispute. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical
knowledge that influenced his successors well into the 20th
century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been
dedicated to him. He remains controversial for his occasionally
violent encounters with indigenous peoples and there is debate on whether he can be held responsible for
paving the way for British imperialism and colonialism.

Early life and family

James Cook was born on 7 November [O.S. 27 October] 1728 in the village of Marton in the North Riding of
Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November (N.S.) in the parish church of St Cuthbert, where his name can be
seen in the church register.[1][2] He was the second of eight children of James Cook (1693–1779), a Scottish
farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, and his locally born wife, Grace Pace (1702–1765), from
Thornaby-on-Tees.[1][3][4] In 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his father's
employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years' schooling, he
began work for his father, who had been promoted to farm manager. Despite not being formally educated, he
became capable in mathematics, astronomy and charting by the time of his Endeavour voyage.[5] For
leisure, he would climb a nearby hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude.[6]

In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles (32 km) to the fishing village of Staithes, to be apprenticed
as a shop boy to grocer and haberdasher William Sanderson.[1] Historians have speculated that this is
where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window.[4]

After 18 months, not proving suited for shop work, Cook travelled to the
nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to Sanderson's friends John
and Henry Walker.[7] The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent
local ship-owners in the coal trade. Their house is now the Captain Cook
Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in
their small fleet of vessels, plying coal along the English coast. His first
assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years
on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and
London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study
of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and astronomy – all skills
he would need one day to command his own ship.[4]
Elizabeth Cook, wife and for 56
His three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading years widow of James Cook, by
William Henderson, 1830
ships in the Baltic Sea. After passing his examinations in 1752, he soon
progressed through the merchant navy ranks, starting with his promotion
in that year to mate aboard the collier brig Friendship.[8] In 1755, within a month of being offered command
of this vessel, he volunteered for service in the Royal Navy, when Britain was re-arming for what was to
become the Seven Years' War. Despite the need to start back at the bottom of the naval hierarchy, Cook
realised his career would advance more quickly in military service and entered the Navy at Wapping on 17
June 1755.[9]

Cook married Elizabeth Batts, the daughter of Samuel Batts, keeper of the Bell Inn in Wapping[10] and one of
his mentors, on 21 December 1762 at St Margaret's Church, Barking, Essex.[11] The couple had six children:
James (1763–1794), Nathaniel (1764–1780, lost aboard HMS Thunderer which foundered with all hands in a
hurricane in the West Indies), Elizabeth (1767–1771), Joseph (1768–1768), George (1772–1772) and Hugh
(1776–1793, who died of scarlet fever while a student at Christ's College, Cambridge). When not at sea,
Cook lived in the East End of London. He attended St Paul's Church, Shadwell, where his son James was
baptised. Cook has no direct descendants – all of his children died before having children of their own.[12]

Start of Royal Navy career

Further information: Great Britain in the Seven Years' War

Cook's first posting was with HMS Eagle, serving as able seaman and master's mate under Captain Joseph
Hamar for his first year aboard, and Captain Hugh Palliser thereafter.[13] In October and November 1755, he
took part in Eagle's capture of one French warship and the sinking of another, following which he was
promoted to boatswain in addition to his other duties.[9] His first temporary command was in March 1756
when he was briefly master of Cruizer, a small cutter attached to Eagle while on patrol.[9][14]

In June 1757, Cook formally passed his master's examinations at Trinity House, Deptford, qualifying him to
navigate and handle a ship of the King's fleet.[15] He then joined the frigate HMS Solebay as master under
Captain Robert Craig.[16]

Canada
During the Seven Years' War, Cook served in North America as master aboard the fourth-rate Navy vessel
HMS Pembroke.[17] With others in Pembroke's crew, he took part in the major amphibious assault that
captured the Fortress of Louisbourg from the French in 1758, and in the siege of Quebec City in 1759.
Throughout his service he demonstrated a talent for surveying and cartography and was responsible for
mapping much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege, thus allowing General Wolfe to
make his famous stealth attack during the 1759 Battle of the Plains of Abraham.[18]

Cook's surveying ability was also put to use in mapping the jagged coast of Newfoundland in the 1760s,
aboard HMS Grenville. He surveyed the northwest stretch in 1763 and 1764, the south coast between the
Burin Peninsula and Cape Ray in 1765 and 1766, and the west coast in 1767. At this time, Cook employed
local pilots to point out the "rocks and hidden dangers" along the south and west coasts. During the 1765
season, four pilots were engaged at a daily pay of 4 shillings each: John Beck for the coast west of "Great St
Lawrence", Morgan Snook for Fortune Bay, John Dawson for Connaigre and Hermitage Bay, and John Peck
for the "Bay of Despair".[19]

While in Newfoundland, Cook also conducted astronomical observations, in particular of the eclipse of the
sun on 5 August 1766. By obtaining an accurate estimate of the time of the start and finish of the eclipse,
and comparing these with the timings at a known position in England, it was possible to calculate the
longitude of the observation site in Newfoundland. This result was communicated to the Royal Society in
1767.[20]

His five seasons in Newfoundland produced the first large-scale and accurate maps of the island's coasts
and were the first scientific, large-scale, hydrographic surveys to use precise triangulation to establish land
outlines.[21] They also gave Cook his mastery of practical surveying, achieved under often adverse
conditions, and brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society at a crucial moment both in
his career and in the direction of British overseas discovery. Cook's maps were used into the 20th century,
with copies being referenced by those sailing Newfoundland's waters for 200 years.[22]

Following his exertions in Newfoundland, Cook wrote that he intended to go not only "farther than any man
has been before me, but as far as I think it is possible for a man to go".[15]

First voyage (1768–1771)

Main article: First voyage of James Cook

On 25 May 1768,[23] the Admiralty commissioned Cook to command a scientific voyage to the Pacific Ocean.
The purpose of the voyage was to observe and record the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun which, when
combined with observations from other places, would help to determine the distance of the Earth from the
Sun.[24] Cook, at age 39, was promoted to lieutenant to grant him sufficient status to take the
command.[25][26] For its part, the Royal Society agreed that Cook would receive a one hundred guinea
gratuity in addition to his Naval pay.[27]

The expedition sailed aboard HMS Endeavour, departing England on 26 August 1768.[28] Cook and his crew
rounded Cape Horn and continued westward across the Pacific, arriving at Tahiti on 13 April 1769, where the
observations of the transit were made.[29] However, the result of the observations was not as conclusive or
accurate as had been hoped. Once the observations were completed, Cook opened the sealed orders,
which were additional instructions from the Admiralty for the second part of his voyage: to search the south
Pacific for signs of the postulated rich southern continent of Terra Australis.[30]

Cook then sailed to New Zealand where he mapped the complete coastline, making only some minor errors.
With the aid of Tupaia, a Tahitian priest who had joined the expedition, Cook was the first European to
communicate with the Māori.[31] However, at least eight Māori were killed in violent encounters.[32] Cook
then voyaged west, reaching the southeastern coast of Australia near today's Point Hicks on 19 April 1770,
and in doing so his expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern
coastline.[NB 1]

On 23 April, he made his first recorded direct observation of

Aboriginal Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point, noting in
his journal: "... and were so near the Shore as to distinguish several
people upon the Sea beach they appear'd to be of a very dark or
black Colour but whether this was the real colour of their skins or the
C[l]othes they might have on I know not."[33]

Endeavour continued northwards along the coastline, keeping the

land in sight with Cook charting and naming landmarks as he went.
Cook landing at Botany Bay
On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the continent (Kamay)
at a beach now known as Silver Beach on Botany Bay (Kamay
Botany Bay National Park). Two Gweagal men of the Dharawal /
Eora nation opposed their landing and in the confrontation one of them was shot and wounded.[34][35][36]

Cook and his crew stayed at Botany Bay for a week, collecting water, timber, fodder and botanical
specimens and exploring the surrounding area. Cook sought to establish relations with the Indigenous
population without success.[37][38] At first Cook named the inlet "Sting-Ray Harbour" after the many stingrays
found there. This was later changed to "Botanist Bay" and finally Botany Bay after the unique specimens
retrieved by the botanists Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander.[39] This first landing site was later to be
promoted (particularly by Joseph Banks) as a suitable candidate for situating a settlement and British
colonial outpost.[40]

After his departure from Botany Bay, he continued northwards. He stopped

at Bustard Bay (now known as Seventeen Seventy) on 23 May 1770. On
24 May, Cook and Banks and others went ashore. Continuing north, on 11
June a mishap occurred when Endeavour ran aground on a shoal of the
Great Barrier Reef, and then "nursed into a river mouth on 18 June
1770".[41] The ship was badly damaged, and his voyage was delayed
almost seven weeks while repairs were carried out on the beach (near the
Endeavour replica in
Cooktown, Queensland docks of modern Cooktown, Queensland, at the mouth of the Endeavour
harbour – anchored where the River).[4] The crew's encounters with the local Aboriginal people were
original Endeavour was mostly peaceful, although following a dispute over green turtles Cook
beached for seven weeks in
ordered shots to be fired and one local was lightly wounded.[42]
1770

The voyage then continued and at about midday on 22 August 1770, they
reached the northernmost tip of the coast and, without leaving the ship, Cook named it York Cape (now
Cape York).[43] Leaving the east coast, Cook turned west and nursed his battered ship through the
dangerously shallow waters of Torres Strait. Searching for a vantage point, Cook saw a steep hill on a
nearby island from the top of which he hoped to see "a passage into the Indian Seas". Cook named the
island Possession Island, where he claimed the entire coastline that he had just explored as British
territory.[44]

Return to England
Cook returned to England via Batavia (modern Jakarta, Indonesia), where many in his crew succumbed to
malaria, and then the Cape of Good Hope, arriving at the island of Saint Helena on 30 April 1771.[45] The
ship finally returned to England on 12 July 1771, anchoring in The Downs, with Cook going to Deal.[46]

Interlude
Cook's journals were published upon his return, and he became something of a hero among the scientific
community. Among the general public, however, the aristocratic botanist Joseph Banks was a greater hero.[4]
Banks even attempted to take command of Cook's second voyage but removed himself from the voyage
before it began, and Johann Reinhold Forster and his son Georg Forster were taken on as scientists for the
voyage. Cook's son George was born five days before he left for his second voyage.[47]

Second voyage (1772–1775)

Main article: Second voyage of James Cook

Shortly after his return from the first voyage, Cook was promoted in
August 1771 to the rank of commander.[48][49] In 1772, he was
commissioned to lead another scientific expedition on behalf of the Royal
Society, to search for the hypothetical Terra Australis. On his first voyage,
Cook had demonstrated by circumnavigating New Zealand that it was
not attached to a larger landmass to the south. Although he charted
almost the entire eastern coastline of Australia, showing it to be
continental in size, the Terra Australis was believed to lie further south.
Despite this evidence to the contrary, Alexander Dalrymple and others of
the Royal Society still believed that a massive southern continent should
exist.[50]
Portrait of James Cook by
William Hodges, who
Cook commanded HMS Resolution on this voyage, while Tobias
accompanied Cook on his second
Furneaux commanded its companion ship, HMS Adventure. Cook's voyage
expedition circumnavigated the globe at an extreme southern latitude,
becoming one of the first to cross the Antarctic Circle on 17 January
1773. In the Antarctic fog, Resolution and Adventure became separated. Furneaux made his way to New
Zealand, where he lost some of his men during an encounter with Māori, and eventually sailed back to
Britain, while Cook continued to explore the Antarctic, reaching 71°10'S on 31 January 1774.[15]

Cook almost encountered the mainland of Antarctica but turned

towards Tahiti to resupply his ship. He then resumed his southward
course in a second fruitless attempt to find the supposed continent.
On this leg of the voyage, he brought a young Tahitian named Omai,
who proved to be somewhat less knowledgeable about the Pacific
than Tupaia had been on the first voyage. On his return voyage to
Illustration from the 1815 edition of
Cook's Voyages, depicting Cook New Zealand in 1774, Cook landed at the Friendly Islands, Easter
watching a human sacrifice in Tahiti c. Island, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, and Vanuatu.[citation needed]
1773
Before returning to England, Cook made a final sweep across the
South Atlantic from Cape Horn and surveyed, mapped, and took
possession for Britain of South Georgia, which had been explored by the English merchant Anthony de la
Roché in 1675. Cook also discovered and named Clerke Rocks and the South Sandwich Islands ("Sandwich
Land"). He then turned north to South Africa and from there continued back to England. His reports upon his
return home put to rest the popular myth of Terra Australis.[51]

Cook's second voyage marked a successful employment of

Larcum Kendall's K1 copy of John Harrison's H4 marine
chronometer, which enabled Cook to calculate his longitudinal
position with much greater accuracy. Cook's log was full of
praise for this time-piece which he used to make charts of the
southern Pacific Ocean that were so remarkably accurate that
copies of them were still in use in the mid-20th century.[52]

Upon his return, Cook was promoted to the rank of post-

captain and given an honorary retirement from the Royal James Cook's 1777 South-Up map of South
Navy, with a posting as an officer of the Greenwich Hospital. Georgia, which he named after King George III

He reluctantly accepted, insisting that he be allowed to quit

the post if an opportunity for active duty should arise.[53] His fame extended beyond the Admiralty; he was
made a Fellow of the Royal Society and awarded the Copley Gold Medal for completing his second voyage
without losing a man to scurvy.[54] Nathaniel Dance-Holland painted his portrait; he dined with James
Boswell; he was described in the House of Lords as "the first navigator in Europe".[15] But he could not be
kept away from the sea. A third voyage was planned, and Cook volunteered to find the Northwest Passage.
He travelled to the Pacific and hoped to travel east to the Atlantic, while a simultaneous voyage travelled the
opposite route.[55]

Third voyage (1776–1779)

Main article: Third voyage of James Cook

Hawaii
On his last voyage, Cook again commanded HMS Resolution, while Captain Charles Clerke commanded
HMS Discovery. The voyage was ostensibly planned to return the Pacific Islander Omai to Tahiti, or so the
public was led to believe. The trip's principal goal was to locate a Northwest Passage around the American
continent.[56] After dropping Omai at Tahiti, Cook travelled north and in 1778 became the first European to
begin formal contact with the Hawaiian Islands.[57] After his initial landfall in January 1778 at Waimea
harbour, Kauai, Cook named the archipelago the "Sandwich Islands" after the fourth Earl of Sandwich—the
acting First Lord of the Admiralty.[57]

North America
From the Sandwich Islands, Cook sailed north and then northeast to explore the west coast of North America
north of the Spanish settlements in Alta California. He sighted the Oregon coast at approximately 44°30′
north latitude, naming Cape Foulweather, after the bad weather which forced his ships south to about 43°
north before they could begin their exploration of the coast northward.[58] He unknowingly sailed past the
Strait of Juan de Fuca and soon after entered Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island. He anchored near the
First Nations village of Yuquot. Cook's two ships remained in Nootka Sound from 29 March to 26 April 1778,
in what Cook called Ship Cove, now Resolution Cove,[59] at the south end of Bligh Island. Relations between
Cook's crew and the people of Yuquot were cordial but sometimes strained. In trading, the people of Yuquot
demanded much more valuable items than the usual trinkets that had been acceptable in Hawaii. Metal
objects were much desired, but the lead, pewter, and tin traded at first soon fell into disrepute. The most
valuable items which the British received in trade were sea otter pelts. During the stay, the Yuquot "hosts"
essentially controlled the trade with the British vessels; the natives usually visited the British vessels at
Resolution Cove instead of the British visiting the village of Yuquot at Friendly Cove.[60]

After leaving Nootka Sound in search of the Northwest Passage, Cook explored and mapped the coast all
the way to the Bering Strait, on the way identifying what came to be known as Cook Inlet in Alaska.[58] In a
single visit, Cook charted the majority of the North American northwest coastline on world maps for the first
time, determined the extent of Alaska, and closed the gaps in Russian (from the west) and Spanish (from the
south) exploratory probes of the northern limits of the Pacific.[15]

By the second week of August 1778, Cook was through the Bering
Strait, sailing into the Chukchi Sea. He headed northeast up the
coast of Alaska until he was blocked by sea ice at a latitude of 70°44′
north. Cook then sailed west to the Siberian coast, and then
southeast down the Siberian coast back to the Bering Strait. By early
September 1778 he was back in the Bering Sea to begin the trip to
the Sandwich (Hawaiian) Islands.[61] He became increasingly
frustrated on this voyage and perhaps began to suffer from a
HMS Resolution and Discovery in
stomach ailment; it has been speculated that this led to irrational
Tahiti
behaviour towards his crew, such as forcing them to eat walrus
meat, which they had pronounced inedible.[62]

Return to Hawaii
Cook returned to Hawaii in 1779. After sailing around the archipelago for some eight weeks, he made
landfall at Kealakekua Bay on Hawai'i Island, largest island in the Hawaiian Archipelago. Cook's arrival
coincided with the Makahiki, a Hawaiian harvest festival of worship for the Polynesian god Lono.
Coincidentally the form of Cook's ship, HMS Resolution, or more particularly the mast formation, sails and
rigging, resembled certain significant artefacts that formed part of the season of worship.[4][63] Similarly,
Cook's clockwise route around the island of Hawaii before making landfall resembled the processions that
took place in a clockwise direction around the island during the Lono festivals. It has been argued (most
extensively by Marshall Sahlins) that such coincidences were the reasons for Cook's (and to a limited extent,
his crew's) initial deification by some Hawaiians who treated Cook as an incarnation of Lono.[64] Though this
view was first suggested by members of Cook's expedition, the idea that any Hawaiians understood Cook to
be Lono, and the evidence presented in support of it, were challenged in 1992 by Gananath Obeyesekere in
the so-called Sahlins–Obeyesekere debate.[65][66]

Death
Main article: Death of James Cook

After a month's stay, Cook attempted to resume his exploration

of the northern Pacific. Shortly after leaving Hawaii Island,
Resolution 's foremast broke, so the ships returned to
Kealakekua Bay for repairs.[citation needed]

Tensions rose, and quarrels broke out between the Europeans

and Hawaiians at Kealakekua Bay, including the theft of wood
from a Hawaiian burial ground under Cook's orders.[67] On 13
February 1779, an unknown group of Hawaiians stole one of
Cook's longboats. By then the Hawaiian people had become
Marker at the shoreline of Kealakekua
Bay, near the spot where Captain Cook was "insolent", even with threats to fire upon them.[68]
slain [failed verification] Cook responded to the theft by attempting to
kidnap and ransom the King of Hawaiʻi, Kalaniʻōpuʻu.
[citation needed]

The following day, 14 February 1779, Cook marched through the village to retrieve the king. Cook took the
king (aliʻi nui) by his own hand and led him away. One of Kalaniʻōpuʻu's favourite wives, Kanekapolei, and
two chiefs approached the group as they were heading to the boats. They pleaded with the king not to go. An
old kahuna (priest), chanting rapidly while holding out a coconut, attempted to distract Cook and his men as
a large crowd began to form at the shore. At this point, the king began to understand that Cook was his
enemy.[68][failed verification] As Cook turned his back to help launch the boats, he was struck on the head by
the villagers and then stabbed to death as he fell on his face in the surf.[69] He was first struck on the head
with a club by a chief named Kalaimanokahoʻowaha or Kanaʻina (namesake of Charles Kana'ina) and then
stabbed by one of the king's attendants, Nuaa.[70][71] The Hawaiians carried his body away towards the back
of the town, still visible to the ship through their spyglass. Four marines, Corporal James Thomas, Private
Theophilus Hinks, Private Thomas Fatchett and Private John Allen, were also killed and two others wounded
in the confrontation.[70][72]

Aftermath
The esteem which the islanders nevertheless
held for Cook caused them to retain his body.
Following their practice of the time, they
prepared his body with funerary rituals usually
reserved for the chiefs and highest elders of the
society. The body was disembowelled and baked
to facilitate removal of the flesh, and the bones The routes of Captain James Cook's voyages. The first
were carefully cleaned for preservation as voyage is shown in red, second voyage in green, and third
religious icons in a fashion somewhat voyage in blue. The route of Cook's crew following his death
is shown as a dashed blue line.
reminiscent of the treatment of European saints
in the Middle Ages. Some of Cook's remains,
thus preserved, were eventually returned to his crew for a formal burial at sea.[73]

Clerke assumed leadership of the expedition and made a final attempt to pass through the Bering Strait.[74]
He died of tuberculosis on 22 August 1779 and John Gore, a veteran of Cook's first voyage, took command
of Resolution and of the expedition. James King replaced Gore in command of Discovery.[75] The expedition
returned home, reaching England in October 1780. After their arrival in England, King completed Cook's
account of the voyage.[76]

Legacy

Ethnographic collections
Main article: James Cook Collection: Australian Museum

The Australian Museum acquired its "Cook Collection" in 1894 from the
Government of New South Wales. At that time the collection consisted of
115 artefacts collected on Cook's three voyages throughout the Pacific
Ocean, during the period 1768–1780, along with documents and
memorabilia related to these voyages. Many of the ethnographic
artefacts were collected at a time of first contact between Pacific Peoples
and Europeans. In 1935 most of the documents and memorabilia were Hawaiian ʻAhu ʻula (feather
transferred to the Mitchell Library in the State Library of New South cloak) held by the Australian
Wales. The provenance of the collection shows that the objects remained Museum

in the hands of Cook's widow Elizabeth Cook, and her descendants, until
1886. In this year John Mackrell, the great-nephew of Isaac Smith, Elizabeth Cook's cousin, organised the
display of this collection at the request of the NSW Government at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in
London. In 1887 the London-based Agent-General for the New South Wales Government, Saul Samuel,
bought John Mackrell's items and also acquired items belonging to the other relatives Reverend Canon
Frederick Bennett, Mrs Thomas Langton, H.M.C. Alexander, and William Adams. The collection remained
with the Colonial Secretary of NSW until 1894, when it was transferred to the Australian Museum.[77]

Navigation and science

Cook's 12 years sailing around the Pacific Ocean contributed
much to Europeans' knowledge of the area. Several islands,
such as the Hawaiian group, were encountered for the first
time by Europeans, and his more accurate navigational
charting of large areas of the Pacific was a major
achievement.[78] To create accurate maps, latitude and
longitude must be accurately determined. Navigators had been
able to work out latitude accurately for centuries by measuring
the angle of the sun or a star above the horizon with an
instrument such as a backstaff or quadrant. Longitude was
more difficult to measure accurately because it requires
precise knowledge of the time difference between points on the
A 1775 chart of Newfoundland, made from
surface of the Earth. The Earth turns a full 360 degrees relative James Cook's Seven Years' War surveyings
to the Sun each day. Thus longitude corresponds to time: 15
degrees every hour, or 1 degree every 4 minutes.[citation needed]
Cook gathered accurate longitude measurements during his first voyage from his navigational skills, with the
help of astronomer Charles Green, and by using the newly published Nautical Almanac tables, via the lunar
distance method – measuring the angular distance from the Moon to either the Sun during daytime or one of
eight bright stars during night-time to determine the time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and
comparing that to his local time determined via the altitude of the Sun, Moon, or stars.[citation needed]

On his second voyage, Cook used the K1 chronometer made by Larcum Kendall, which was the shape of a
large pocket watch, 5 inches (13 cm) in diameter. It was a copy of the H4 clock made by John Harrison,
which proved to be the first to keep accurate time at sea when used on the ship Deptford 's journey to
Jamaica in 1761–62.[79] He succeeded in circumnavigating the world on his first voyage without losing a
single man to scurvy, an unusual accomplishment at the time. He tested several preventive measures, most
importantly the frequent replenishment of fresh food.[80] For presenting a paper on this aspect of the voyage
to the Royal Society he was presented with the Copley Medal in 1776.[81][82] Cook became the first
European to have extensive contact with various people of the Pacific. He correctly postulated a link among
all the Pacific peoples, despite their being separated by great ocean stretches (see Malayo-Polynesian
languages). Cook theorised that Polynesians originated from Asia, which scientist Bryan Sykes later
verified.[83] In New Zealand the coming of Cook is often used to signify the onset of the colonisation.[4][7]

Cook carried several scientists on his voyages; they made

significant observations and discoveries. Two botanists,
Joseph Banks and the Swede Daniel Solander, sailed on the
first voyage. The two collected over 3,000 plant species.[84]
Banks subsequently strongly promoted British settlement of
Australia,[85][86] leading to the establishment of New South
Wales as a penal settlement in 1788. Artists also sailed on
Cook's first voyage. Sydney Parkinson was heavily involved in
documenting the botanists' findings, completing 264 drawings
William Hodges' painting of HMS
Resolution and HMS Adventure in Matavai before his death near the end of the voyage. They were of
Bay, Tahiti immense scientific value to British botanists.[4][87] Cook's
second expedition included William Hodges, who produced
notable landscape paintings of Tahiti, Easter Island, and other
locations. Several officers who served under Cook went on to distinctive accomplishments. William Bligh,
Cook's sailing master, was given command of HMS Bounty in 1787 to sail to Tahiti and return with breadfruit.
Bligh became known for the mutiny of his crew, which resulted in his being set adrift in 1789. He later
became Governor of New South Wales, where he was the subject of another mutiny—the 1808 Rum
Rebellion.[88] George Vancouver, one of Cook's midshipmen, led a voyage of exploration to the Pacific Coast
of North America from 1791 to 1794.[89] In honour of Vancouver's former commander, his ship was named
Discovery. George Dixon, who sailed under Cook on his third expedition, later commanded his own.[90]

Cook's contributions to knowledge gained international recognition during his lifetime. In 1779, while the
American colonies were fighting Britain for their independence, Benjamin Franklin wrote to captains of
colonial warships at sea, recommending that if they came into contact with Cook's vessel, they were to "not
consider her an enemy, nor suffer any plunder to be made of the effects contained in her, nor obstruct her
immediate return to England by detaining her or sending her into any other part of Europe or to America; but
that you treat the said Captain Cook and his people with all civility and kindness ... as common friends to
mankind."[91]

Memorials
A U.S. coin, the 1928 Hawaii Sesquicentennial half-dollar,
carries Cook's image. Minted for the 150th anniversary of his
discovery of the islands, its low mintage (10,008) has made this
example of an early United States commemorative coin both
scarce and expensive.[92] The site where he was killed in Hawaii
was marked in 1874 by a white obelisk. This land, although in
Hawaii, was deeded to the United Kingdom by Princess Likelike
and her husband, Archibald Scott Cleghorn, to the British Consul
to Hawaii, James Hay Wodehouse, in 1877.[93][94][failed verification]
A nearby town is named Captain Cook, Hawaii; several
Hawaiian businesses also carry his name. The Apollo 15
Command/Service Module Endeavour,[95] the Space
Shuttle Endeavour,[96] and the Crew Dragon Endeavour;[97] are
named after Cook's ship. Another Space Shuttle, Discovery, was
named after Cook's HMS Discovery.[98]

Cooks' Cottage, his parents' last home, which he is likely to

Memorial to James Cook and family in
have visited, is now in Melbourne, Australia, having been moved the church of St Andrew the Great,
from England at the behest of the Australian philanthropist Sir Cambridge
Russell Grimwade in 1934.[99][100][7] The first institution of higher
education in North Queensland, Australia, was named after him, with James Cook University opening in
Townsville in 1970.[101] Numerous institutions, landmarks and place names reflect the importance of Cook's
contributions, including the Cook Islands, Cook Strait, Cook Inlet and the Cook crater on the Moon.[102]
Aoraki / Mount Cook, the highest summit in New Zealand, is named for him.[103] Another Mount Cook is on
the border between the U.S. state of Alaska and the Canadian Yukon territory, and is designated Boundary
Peak 182 as one of the official Boundary Peaks of the Hay–Herbert Treaty.[104]

There are statues of Cook in Hyde Park in Sydney, and at St Kilda in Melbourne.[105]

One of the earliest monuments to Cook in the United Kingdom is located at The Vache, erected in 1780 by
Admiral Hugh Palliser, a contemporary of Cook and one-time owner of the estate.[106] A large obelisk was
built in 1827 as a monument to Cook on Easby Moor overlooking his boyhood village of Great Ayton,[107]
along with a smaller monument at the former location of Cook's cottage.[108] There is also a monument to
Cook in the church of St Andrew the Great, St Andrew's Street, Cambridge, where his sons Hugh, a student
at Christ's College, and James were buried. Cook's widow Elizabeth was also buried in the church and in her
will left money for the memorial's upkeep. The 250th anniversary of Cook's birth was marked at the site of his
birthplace in Marton by the opening of the Captain Cook Birthplace Museum, located within Stewart Park
(1978). A granite vase just to the south of the museum marks the approximate spot where he was born.[109]
Tributes also abound in post-industrial Middlesbrough, including a primary school,[110] shopping square[111]
and the Bottle 'O Notes, a public artwork by Claes Oldenburg, that was erected in the town's Central
Gardens in 1993. Also named after Cook is James Cook University Hospital, a major teaching hospital which
opened in 2003 with a railway station serving it called James Cook opening in 2014.[112] The Royal
Research Ship RRS James Cook was built in 2006 to replace the RRS Charles Darwin in the UK's Royal
Research Fleet,[113] and Stepney Historical Trust placed a plaque on Free Trade Wharf in the Highway,
Shadwell to commemorate his life in the East End of London. A statue erected in his honour can be viewed
near Admiralty Arch on the south side of The Mall in London. In 2002, Cook was placed at number 12 in the
BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.[114]

In 1959, the Cooktown Re-enactment Association first performed a re-

enactment of Cook's 1770 landing at the site of modern Cooktown,
Australia, and have continued the tradition each year, with the support
and participation of many of the local Guugu Yimithirr people. They
celebrate the first act of reconciliation between Indigenous Australians
and non-Indigenous people, when a Guugu Yimithirr elder stepped in
after some of Cook's men had violated custom by taking green turtles Annual re-enactment of James
from the river and not sharing with the local people. He presented Cook Cook's visit in Cooktown,
Queensland
with a broken-tipped spear as a peace offering, thus preventing possible
bloodshed. Cook recorded the incident in his journal.[115]

Culture
Cook was a subject in many literary creations. Letitia Elizabeth Landon, a popular poet known for her
sentimental romantic poetry,[116] published a poetical illustration to a portrait of Captain Cook in 1837.[117] In
1931, Kenneth Slessor's poem "Five Visions of Captain Cook" was the "most dramatic break-through" in
Australian poetry of the 20th century according to poet Douglas Stewart.[118]

Cook appears as a symbolic and generic figure in several Aboriginal myths, often from regions where Cook
did not encounter Aboriginal people. Maddock states that Cook is usually portrayed as the bringer of
Western colonialism to Australia and is presented as a villain who brings immense social change.[119]

Cook has been depicted in numerous films, documentaries and dramas.[120][121][122] The Australian slang
phrase "Have a Captain Cook" means to have a look or conduct a brief inspection.[123]

Controversy
The period 2018 to 2021 marked the 250th anniversary of Cook's first
voyage of exploration. Several countries, including Australia and New
Zealand, arranged official events to commemorate the voyage,[124][125]
leading to widespread public debate about Cook's legacy and the
violence associated with his contacts with Indigenous peoples.[126][127] In
the lead-up to the commemorations, various memorials to Cook in
Australia and New Zealand were vandalised, and there were public calls
for their removal or modification due to their alleged promotion of
colonialist narratives.[128][129] There were also campaigns for the return
of Indigenous artefacts taken during Cook's voyages (see Gweagal
shield).[130]

In July 2021, a statue of Cook in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, was Statue of James Cook, Hyde
torn down in protests about the deaths of Indigenous residential school Park, Sydney. The rear inscription
children in Canada.[131] In January 2024, a statue of Cook in St Kilda, reads: "Discovered this territory,
1770".
Melbourne was cut down in a protest against colonialism; the premier of
Victoria pledged to work with the local council to repair the
statue.[132][105][133]

Alice Proctor argues that the controversies over public representations of Cook and the display of
Indigenous artefacts from his voyages are part of a broader debate over the decolonisation of museums and
public spaces and resistance to colonialist narratives.[134] While a number of commentators argue that Cook
enabled British imperialism and colonialism in the Pacific,[126][135][136][137] Geoffrey Blainey, among others,
notes that Banks promoted Botany Bay as a site for colonisation after Cook's death.[138] Robert Tombs has
defended Cook, arguing: "He epitomized the Age of Enlightenment in which he lived" and in conducting his
first voyage "was carrying out an enlightened mission, with instructions from the Royal Society to show
‘patience and forbearance’ towards native peoples".[139]

Arms
Coat of arms of James Cook [hide]

Notes
Cook's coat of arms were granted to his widowed wife, the only
known example of a posthumous grant.[140] The Letters Patent further
detail that Elizabeth Batts Cook petitioned for the grant six years after
his death to preserve the memory of her late husband and to be
placed on any monuments and memorials.[141]
Adopted
3 September 1785
Crest
On a Wreath of the Colours, An Arm embowed, vested in the Uniform
of a Captain of the Royal Navy, in the Hand the Union-Jack on a Staff
proper; the Arm encircled by a Wreath of Palm and Laurel.
Escutcheon
Azure, between the two Polar Stars Or, a Sphere on the plane of the
Meridian, North Pole elevated, Circles of Latitude for every ten
degrees and of Longitude for fifteen, showing the Pacific Ocean
between fifty and two hundred and forty West, bounded on one side
by America, on the other by Asia and New Holland, in memory of his
having explored and made Discoveries in that Ocean so very far
beyond all former Navigators; His Track thereon marked with red
Lines.[142]
Motto
NIL INTENTATUM RELIQUIT & CIRCA ORBEM

See also
New Zealand places named by James Cook
Australian places named by James Cook
European and American voyages of scientific exploration
Exploration of the Pacific
List of places named after Captain James Cook
List of sea captains
Death of Cook (paintings)
Port-Christmas

References

Notes
1. ^ At this time, the International Date Line had yet to be established, so the dates in Cook's journal are a day
earlier than those accepted today.

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Hayes, Derek (1999). Historical Atlas of the Pacific Northwest: Maps of exploration and Discovery .
Sasquatch Books. ISBN 978-1-57061-215-2.
Horwitz, Tony (October 2003). Blue Latitudes: Boldly Going Where Captain Cook Has Gone Before.
Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-7475-6455-3.
Hough, Richard (1994). Captain James Cook. Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-82556-3.
Kemp, Peter; Dear, I. C. B. (2005). The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea. OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-
860616-1.
Kippis, Andrew (1788). Narrative of the voyages round the world, performed by Captain James Cook;
with an account of his life during the previous and intervening periods . Archived from the original on
22 March 2012. Retrieved 16 July 2012.
McLynn, Frank (2011). Captain Cook: Master of the Seas. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11421-
8.
Moorehead, Alan (1966). Fatal Impact: An Account of the Invasion of the South Pacific, 1767–1840 . H
Hamilton. ISBN 978-0-241-90757-3.
Mundle, Rob (2013). Cook: from Sailor to Legend. ABC Books. ISBN 978-1-4607-0061-7.
Obeyesekere, Gananath (1992). The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific.
Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05680-7.
Obeyesekere, Gananath (1997). The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the
Pacific (PDF). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05752-1. "With new preface and afterword
replying to criticism from Sahlins"
Rigby, Nigel; van der Merwe, Pieter (2002). Captain Cook in the Pacific. National Maritime Museum,
London. ISBN 978-0-948065-43-9.
Robson, John (2004). The Captain Cook Encyclopædia. Random House Australia. ISBN 978-0-7593-
1011-7.
Robson, John (2009). Captain Cook's War and Peace: The Royal Navy Years 1755–1768. University of
New South Wales Press. ISBN 978-1-74223-109-9.
Sahlins, Marshall David (1985). Islands of history . University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-
73358-6.
Sahlins, Marshall David (1995). How "Natives" Think: About Captain Cook, for example. University of
Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-73368-5.
Sidney, John Baker (1981). The Australian Language: An Examination of the English Language and
English Speech as Used in Australia, from Convict Days to the Present. Melbourne: Sun Books.
ISBN 978-0-7251-0382-8.
Stamp, Tom and Cordelia (1978). James Cook Maritime Scientist. Whitby: Caedmon of Whitby Press.
ISBN 978-0-905355-04-7.
Sykes, Bryan (2001). The Seven Daughters of Eve. Norton Publishing: New York City and London.
ISBN 978-0-393-02018-2.
Wagner, A. R. (1972). Historic Heraldry of Britain . London: Phillimore & Co Ltd. ISBN 978-0-85033-
022-9.
Wharton, W. J. L. (1893). Captain Cook's Journal during his first voyage round the world made in H.M.
Bark "Endeavour" 1768–71 . Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 16 July 2012.

Further reading
Further information: Exploration of the Pacific § Bibliography

Aughton, Peter (2002). Endeavour: The Story of Captain Cook's First Great Epic Voyage. London:
Cassell & Co. ISBN 978-0-304-36236-3.
Beazley, Charles Raymond (1911). "Cook, James" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). pp. 71–
72.
Edwards, Philip, ed. (2003). James Cook: The Journals . London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-
043647-1. "Prepared from the original manuscripts by J. C. Beaglehole 1955–67"
Edwards, Philip, ed. (2019). Captain James Cook: The Journals. London: Folio Society.
OCLC 1066235678 . Three volumes and chart; deluxe edition.
Forster, Georg, ed. (1986). A Voyage Round the World. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-05-000180-7.
"Published first 1777 as: A Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution,
Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5"
Hawkesworth, John; Byron, John; Wallis, Samuel; Carteret, Philip; Cook, James; Banks, Joseph (1773).
An account of the voyages undertaken by the order of His present Majesty for making discoveries in the
Southern Hemisphere, and successively performed by Commodore Byron, Captain Wallis, Captain
Carteret, and Captain Cook, in the Dolphin, the Swallow, and the Endeavour drawn up from the journals
which were kept by the several commanders, and from the papers of Joseph Banks, esq. London:
Printed for W. Strahan and T. Cadell. OCLC 9299044 . Volume I ; Volume II–III .
Igler, David (2013). The Great Ocean: Pacific Worlds from Captain Cook to the Gold Rush. New York:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199914951. OCLC 811599695 .
Kippis, Andrew (1904). The Life and Voyages of Captain James Cook . London; New York: George
Newnes Ltd.; Charles Scribner's Sons. OCLC 1836297 .
Richardson, Brian (2005). Longitude and Empire: How Captain Cook's Voyages Changed the World.
Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 0-7748-1190-0. OCLC 58930493 .
Sides, Hampton (2024). The Wide Wide Sea: Imperial Ambition, First Contact, and the Fateful Final
Voyage of Captain James Cook. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 9780385544764. OCLC 1416012934 .
Captain Cook: His Artists • His Voyages: The Daily Telegraph Portfolio of Original Works by Artists Who
Sailed with Captain Cook . Sydney: Australian Consolidated Press. 1970. OCLC 896726172 .
Thomas, Nicholas (2003). The Extraordinary Voyages of Captain James Cook. New York: Walker & Co.
ISBN 0-8027-1412-9. OCLC 1030721339 .
Uglow, Jenny (7 February 2019). "Island Hopping; Reviewed: Captain James Cook: The Journals,
selected and edited by Philip Edwards, London, Folio Society, three volumes and a chart of the voyages,
1,309 pp.; and William Frame with Laura Walker, James Cook: The Voyages, McGill-Queen University
Press, 224 pp" . The New York Review of Books. Vol. LXVI, no. 2. pp. 18–20. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
Villiers, Alan (Summer 1956–57). "James Cook, Seaman" . Quadrant. 1 (1): 7–16. ISSN 0033-5002 .
Williams, Glyndwr, ed. (1997). Captain Cook's Voyages: 1768–1779. London: The Folio Society.
OCLC 38549967 . "A selection of Cook's published journals (about one-fifth of the original)." —OCLC
Withey, Lynne (1987). Voyages of Discovery: Captain Cook and the Exploration of the Pacific . New
York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0688051154. OCLC 15488483 .

External links
Captain Cook Society Library resources about
Captain Cook historic plaque, Halifax James Cook

"Explorer, navigator, coloniser: revisit Captain Cook's legacy with the Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
click of a mouse" . The Conversation. 29 April 2020. Retrieved
29 April 2020. Wikimedia Commons has
media related to:
"Articles on Captain Cook" . The Conversation. 2017–2020. James Cook (category)
Retrieved 23 December 2020.
Wikisource has original
Captain Cook., a poetical illustration to Sherwin's engraving of works by or about:
Nathaniel Dance's portrait by Letitia Elizabeth Landon in Fisher's James Cook
Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838. Wikivoyage has a travel
Map showing locations of Cook landings and Cook monuments in guide for Voyages of
James Cook.
Australia and New Zealand

Biographical dictionaries
"Cook, James (1728–1779)" . Australian Dictionary of Biography (online ed.). National Centre of
Biography, Australian National University. 1966. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
Williams, Glyndwr (1979). "Cook, James" . In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian
Biography. Vol. IV (1771–1800) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
Mackay, David. "Cook, James" . Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. Ministry for Culture and
Heritage.

Journals
The Endeavour journal (1) and The Endeavour journal (2) , as kept by James Cook – digitised and
held by the National Library of Australia
The South Seas Project : maps and online editions of the Journals of James Cook's First Pacific
Voyage, 1768–1771. Includes full text of journals kept by Cook, Joseph Banks and Sydney Parkinson, as
well as the complete text of John Hawkesworth's 1773 Account of Cook's first voyage.
Digitised copies of log books from James Cook's voyages at the British Atmospheric Data Centre
Works by James Cook at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about James Cook at Internet Archive
Works by James Cook at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Log book of Cook's second voyage : high-resolution digitised version in Cambridge Digital Library
Digitised Tapa cloth catalogue held at Auckland Libraries

Collections and museums

Cook's Pacific Encounters: Cook-Forster Collection online Images and descriptions of more than 300
artefacts collected during the three Pacific voyages of James Cook.
Images and descriptions of items associated with James Cook at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa
Tongarewa
"Archival material relating to James Cook" . UK National Archives.
Captain Cook Birthplace Museum Marton Archived 20 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
Captain Cook Memorial Museum Whitby
Cook's manuscript maps Archived 1 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine of the south-east coast
of Australia, held at the American Geographical Society Library at UW Milwaukee.
Newspaper clippings about James Cook in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW

· · Captain James Cook [show]

· · Copley Medallists (1751–1800) [show]

· · Polar exploration [show]

Authority control databases [show]

Categories: James Cook 1728 births 1779 deaths 18th-century English people
18th-century explorers Death in Hawaii English explorers of the Pacific
British military personnel of the French and Indian War British navigators
British people executed abroad Circumnavigators of the globe English cartographers
English explorers of North America English hydrographers English people of Scottish descent
English sailors Explorers of Alaska Explorers of Antarctica Explorers of Australia
Explorers of British Columbia Explorers of New Zealand Explorers of Oregon
Explorers of Washington (state) Fellows of the Royal Society Hydrographers Maritime writers
People from Middlesbrough Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Recipients of the Copley Medal Royal Navy officers Q150 Icons Sea captains
Royal Navy captains Military personnel from North Yorkshire 18th-century Royal Navy personnel

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