German University of Technology in Oman

Faculty of Science
Applied Geoscience Department
Course: Field Study 2

Field Study Report in Salalah in

Wadi Darbat

Supervisor:
Prof. Markus Gurk

Done by:
AL-Rayyan AL Hinai 20-0447
Marwah Al Arimiya 20-0399
Raiyan AL Kiyumi 20-0397
Walaa Al Maghdri 20-0381
ABSTRACT
This report presents the findings and interpretation of an Audio magnetotellurics (AMT)
experiment in addition to the application of the classic radio magnetotellurics device
conducted in Wadi Darbat, Dhofar in Oman. A valley area of around 600 m surrounded by
mountains of an average elevation of 200 meter. The aim of the experiment is to measure the
electromagnetic field of the area utilizing the electrodes method. AMT operates in frequency
range of (0.1 – 20 kHz) while the classic Radio magnetotellurics frequency is limited to (24-
12 kHz). Data obtained from the experiment are essential to understand the subsurface
structure and conditions. However, there was a few challenges during the experiment that
negatively affected the data quality.

INTRODUCTION
Audio-magnetotellurics (AMT) is a geophysical technique used to investigate the earth’s
subsurface by measuring the electromagnetic fields. It is mostly effective for studying the
geological formation and mineral deposit at various depths (Zonge Internatonal,2016). This
method facilitates a detail image of the subsurface structures by employing several
components like the magnetometers, electric field sensor (electrodes) placed in an L shape, a
data acquisition unit to record the magnetic and electric signals and lastly a processing
software which is used to derive the essential parameters from the AMT measurements, such
as the apparent resistivity and phase.

In addition, the Radio-magnetotelluric (RMT) devices is an outdated tool that used for
geophysical surveys and collecting data along a profile, working similar to a radio receiver
measuring the natural electromagnetic field of the earths subsurface. it is a practical choice to
map near-surface resistivity variations as it has a limited frequency of (24-12 kHz) it relies
on natural electromagnetic sources at very low frequency (Bastani, Wang, Malehmir, &
Mehta, 2022).
Geological background
The geomorphology of Jebel Qara and the coastal plain of Salalah in Oman's Dhofar
region is a product of multiple interactions between tectonic events, climate changes, and
human impacts, notably during the Quaternary period. The Jebel Qara terrain of Late
Cretaceous to Neogene limestone layers owes its structural underpinning to extensive
tectonic activity. This event, which most likely began in the late Paleogene with the opening
of the Gulf of Aden, contributed to the massif's elevation and the formation of a network of
transtensional faults directed at ENE-WSW and WNW-ESE. These faults not only
contributed to generating the escarpments of Jebel Qara, which rose to around 850 meters
above sea level, but they also impacted the relative lowering of the Salalah plain. The terrain
was further disturbed by the massif's karstification, a chemical weathering process in which
water dissolves soluble rocks like limestone. A complex network of underground drainage
networks, sinkholes, and caverns were created as a result of this process, which was fuelled
by the area's semi-arid environment and seasonal monsoon rainfall (Zerboni et al., 2020).
Within this karst environment, the production of Tufa, a kind of limestone generated
by the precipitation of calcium carbonate from groundwater, is important in shaping Wadi
systems. Tufa formation appears when calcium carbonate-rich water percolates through the
karst system and emerges at the surface, usually along fault lines or where the slope changes.
As this water loses carbon dioxide, often owing to temperature or pressure changes, calcium
carbonate precipitates, resulting in the formation of tufa deposits. These deposits can take
different forms, including dams, cascades, and flowstones, which are frequently found inside
the wadis of the Jebel Qara, such as the Wadi Darbat (Zerboni et al., 2020).
In contrast to the steep Jebel Qara, Salalah's coastal plain is flat, produced by the
coalescence of alluvial fans deposited by wadis from the massif. These fans made up of
eroded sediments from the Jebel Qara depict the region's fluvial processes, which are
impacted by past and present climate circumstances. The existence of marine terraces along
the shore, which indicate prior sea level variations, contributes to the area's geomorphic
complexity. The interaction of tectonic uplift, karstification, tufa formation, and river
processes has resulted in a diversified and dynamic environment in Jebel Qara and the coastal
plain of Salalah, representing a long and complicated geological history (Zerboni et al., 2020).
Figure:1 Cross section of Wadi Darabat stop at the Jebel Qara area of average elevation of 200m,
showing limestone dominated area with the Clay cover on the top part of the mountain at the SW side
and the karstification on the top part of the mountain at the NW side.
AMT Experiment
The Audio Magnetotelluric (AMT) method is a passive geophysical technique that
measures natural variations in the electric and magnetic field (0.1 Hz to 20 kHz), allowing
for the mapping of subsurface resistivity, with depths on the order of tens of meters to several
kilometers (Peterson, 2020). Its use of electric dipoles and magnetic sensors enables high-
resolution images of shallow structures, making it perfect for groundwater, mineral,
geothermal, and environmental studies. But its efficiency drops at higher depths and can be
influenced by cultural noise in urban regions (Peterson, 2020). During a field trip to Salalah’s
Wadi Darabat, this method was employed in L shape to measure the electromagnetic field of
the area using electrode-based techniques.
 Figure 2. Satellite image of Wadi Darbat showing the place where experiment is done
at coordinate (17° 5'23.00"N), (54°26'32.00"E) using Google Earth (Zoom out).

N S

Component of AMT system

Figure 3. Satellite image of Wadi Darbat Showing the place
An AMT system typically consists of the following components:
where experiment was done using Google Earth (Zoom in).
1. Magnetic Sensors (Magnetometers): Used to measure changes in the natural
magnetic field of the earth. Because induction coil magnetometers are the most
sensitive to the audio frequency band, these devices are regularly used in AMT
systems.
2. Electric Field Sensors (Electrodes): Detect natural electric field variations. Usually,
non-polarizable electrodes are used to reduce noise and provide accurate
measurements. This type of electrode is filled with saltwater, has a porous bottom that
allows contact with the subsoil for measuring the electrical potential.
3. Data Acquisition Unit: This unit records the time-series of the magnetic and electric
fields. Amplifiers, filters, and analog-to-digital converters are integrated into the
system to maximize the quality of data acquisition.
4. Processing Software: The recorded time-series data is processed by specialized
software, converting the recorded time series into frequency-domain data and
calculating the apparent resistivity and phase as a function of frequency.
Figure 7. Processing Software.
Data Processing and Interpretation
The voltage between electrodes is one of the most important measurements that can be
collected by Audio Magnetotelluric (AMT) systems. This is utilized in computing the
components of the electric field, which are important in calculating the apparent resistivity and
the phase of the underground. Here is the values of voltage and calculation of electric field:
1. Field Measurements
 Measured Voltages:
o N-S (North-South) = 2.5 mV
o S-W (South-West) = -1.9 mV
 Electrode Spacing:
o d N−S = 25 m
o d S−W =18 m

2. Electric Field Calculation

The electric field (E) is calculated using the formula:
E = V/d
 N-S Electric Field:
E N-S = V/d = 2.5/ 25 = 0.1 mV/m
 S-W Electric Field:
E S-W = V/d = -1.9/ 18 = - 0.11 mV/m

3. Key Parameters Derived from AMT Measurements:

The raw measurements by the AMT system is matured to derive the following key
parameters:
 Apparent Resistivity: The resistivity obtained from the ratio of the measured
electric field to the magnetic field, giving a first approximation of the resistivity of
the subsurface material.
 Phase: In-phase difference between the electric and magnetic fields is applied to find
out the resistivity distribution for varying depths.
4. Subsurface Resistivity Modeling:
These parameters are then introduced to generate models of subsurface resistivity
structure in 1D space (Figure 5). Commonly used to update them and provide a better
approximation of even the superficial layers.

Figure 5. The inversion results of three-layer case for wadi Darbat area. The top left curve shows
the apparent resistivity in (ohm-m) versus the time period in (second) with the observed and
modeled data, the down left curve shows the phase curve in degree with the modeled and observed
data. While the right curve illustrates the 1D model (resistivity versus the depth in meter). (Audio
magnetotelluric (AMT) Test on Wadi Darbat).

This Model illustrates the three-layer case, where the apparent resistivity curve initially
shows high resistivity values above 100 ohm-m near the surface, corresponding to the
first layer. This is followed by a significant decrease in resistivity for the second layer,
and a subsequent decrease in resistivity for the third layer. The phase curved mirrors this
pattern, capturing the transitions between layers. The 1D inversion model indicates that
the first layer has a high resistivity exceeding 200 ohm-m and a depth of about 250 m, the
 second layer exhibits a low resistivity exceeding10 ohm-m with a depth of around 280 m,
and the third layer shows very low resistivity of about -0.9 ohm-m.
Challenges and Considerations
o Cultural Noise: Urban environments can introduce noise, reducing data quality.
o Depth Limitations: AMT is less effective for very deep structures compared to
other methods like MT (Magnetotelluric).
o Data Interpretation: Accurate modeling requires careful processing and
inversion of data to avoid misinterpretation.

The Salalah Wadi Darbat AMT experiment shows that since the method has the ability to map
ground resistivity and it can trace distinct geological layers, it is also possible to image the shape
of these layers underground. These findings have revealed the local geological conditions in
great detail, capable of serving both as a guide for resource exploitation and environmental
management with other regions. But when interpreting and applying such AMT data, avoiding as
far as we can sticking closely to noise influence and depth limit considerations is important for
getting things right.
The classic radio magneto-telluric

The classic radio magneto-telluric (MT) method is a passive geophysical technique used
to investigate the electrical conductivity structure of the Earth's subsurface based on the use
of naturally scheduled electromagnetic (EM) fields produced by atmospheric processes, such
as solar wind or lightning discharges (Cagniard, 1953). This step works on a limited range of
frequencies (24–12 kHz), acting as a radio receiver in marine ships and long-distance
communication, for example. The height, however, increases as one moves away from the
source, which makes the setup of the device require knowledge of the location to get the best
results. By connecting headphones, I can hear when the device achieves a maximum or a
minimum signal, depending on the frequency. In our study, we performed measurements at
18.2 kHz in the region of India, 23.4 kHz in the region of Germany, and 20.9 kHz in the
region of Russia. While the frequency changed, the direction of the signal was the same
everywhere. A minimum noise level indicates that the radio transmitter in the country of
origin (for example, India) produces a horizontally polarized magnetic field (Figure 10) As it
spreads outward from the source, the geometry of the field goes from curvy lines to straighter
lines. The maximum noise level registered during observations is essential for understanding
how the electromagnetic fields are behaving. At the peak of the noise is typically the point
where the radio transmitter in the source region creates a vertically polarized magnetic field.
This vertical polarization interacts more strongly with the Earth's subsurface conductivity
structure than transverse polarization, which increases noise as the signal travels through
different geologic layers (Figure 9).
 Figure 8. The red arrow shows Figure 9. The red arrow
the horizontal direction of the shows the vertical direction
Conclusion minimum signal. of the maximum signal.

The field study in Wadi Darbat, Salalah, conducted using Audio Magnetotelluric (AMT)
and Radio Magnetotelluric (RMT) techniques, provided valuable insights into the region's
subsurface structure. AMT revealed a three-layer geological model, with high-resistivity
limestone formations at the surface and lower-resistivity layers below, indicating lithological
variations and potential groundwater presence. These results highlight the method’s precision
in mapping complex subsurface structures, making it highly applicable for groundwater
studies, mineral exploration, and environmental management. RMT complemented AMT by
analysing electromagnetic field behaviour across different frequencies, revealing how field
orientation and polarization affect subsurface conductivity interpretations. The integration of
these methods offered a detailed understanding of the region’s geophysical characteristics,
which were further contextualized by the unique geological features of Wadi Darbat,
including karstic formations in Jebel Qara and the alluvial plains of Salalah.

Despite its success, the study faced challenges such as cultural noise, which reduced
signal clarity, and AMT’s depth limitations, restricting deeper geological exploration.
Addressing these issues through advanced processing and additional methodologies could
enhance future investigations. The findings demonstrate the value of combining geophysical
techniques with geological knowledge for comprehensive subsurface analysis, contributing to
sustainable development efforts. Moreover, the study serves as a baseline for further research
in similar regions. Future investigations could integrate methods like Magnetotellurics (MT)
for deeper penetration or Seismic Refraction for structural validation, creating even more
detailed subsurface models to support resource management and land-use planning.