A CONCISE COURSE

FOR CAPE

PURE MATHEMATICS

UNIT 1

NICHOLAS PAUL

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Section 1 – Reasoning and logic

Section 2 – The real number system

Section 3 – Principle of mathematical induction

Section 4 - Polynomials

Section 5 – Indices, Surds and Logarithms

Section 6 - Functions

Section 7 – Cubic Polynomials

Section 8 – Inequalities and the modulus function

Section 9 - Trigonometry

Section 10 – Coordinate geometry

Section 11 – Vectors in three dimensions

Section 12 – Limits and continuity

Section 13 – Differentiation 1

Section 14 – Applications of Differentiation

Section 15 - Integration

Section 16 – Application of integration

Section 17 – Differential equations

2
 Section 1 – Reasoning and logic

A proposition is a statement that makes a

declaration that is either true or false, but not both.

A simple statement is a statement that cannot be

decomposed into separate statements.

A compound statement is formed from two or more

simple statements.

Algebra of propositions:

Idempotent laws

i) p ˅ p ≡ p ii)p ˄ p ≡ p

Associative laws

i) (p ˅ q) ˅ r ≡ p˅ (p ˅ r) ii)(p ˄ q) ˄ r ≡ p ˄ (q ˄ r)

Commutative laws

i) p ˅ q ≡ q ˅ p ii)p ˄ q ≡ q ˄ p

Distributive laws
i)p ˅ (q ˄ r) ≡ (p ˅ q) ˄ (p ˅ r)
ii)p ˄ (q ˅ r) ≡ (p ˄ q) ˅ (p ˄ r)

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Identity laws
i)p ˅ F ≡ p ii)p ˄ T ≡ p iii)p ˅ T ≡ T iv)p ˄ F ≡ F

Complement laws
i)~ ~p ≡ p ii)~T ≡ F, ~F ≡ T
iii)p ˄ ~p ≡ T iv)p ˄ ~p ≡ F

De Morgan’s laws
i)~(p ˅ q) ≡ ~p ˄ ~q ii)~(p ˄ q) ≡ ~p ˅ ~q

Absorption laws
i)p ˄ (p ˅ q) ≡ p ii)p ˅ (p ˄ q) ≡ p

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T or 1 represents true.

F or 0 represents false.

~q, q', 𝑞̅, negation of q: 'It is not the case that qꞌ.

˄, 'and' conjunction: p ˄ q is true only when both p

and q are true.

˅, 'or': disjunction: p ˅ q is false when both p and q

are false and it is true otherwise.

p → q, 'p implies q': p → q is false only when p is

true and q is false, it is true otherwise. p is called the

antecedent or premise and q the conclusion or

consequent.

The contrapositive of p → q is (~q) → (~p).

The converse of p → g is q → p.

The inverse of p → q is ~p → ~q.

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Equivalent: Two propositions have the same truth
value.

Biconditional: p ↔ q:'p if and only if qꞌ p ↔ q is

true when p → q and q → p are true. p↔ q is false
otherwise.

A tautology is a compound statement that is always

true.

A contradiction is a compound statement that is

always false.

A contingency is a compound statement that is

neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

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Truth tables
In a truth table
i)the first row consists of the statements

ii)the following rows give the truth value of the

statements

p q ~q p˄ p˅ p→ q p ↔q
q q
T T F T T T T

T F F F T F F

F T T F T T F

F F T F F T T

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 Section 2 – The real number system

Real Numbers (ℝ) Whole numbers (

Rational numbers (ℚ) Natural numbers (ℕ)

Irrational numbers (ℤ)

Binary operations

A binary operation * on a non-empty set A is a

function *: A × A → A.

Closure: * is closed with respect to A if ∀ a, b ∈ A,

a * b ∈ A. Addition and multiplication are closed

with respect to the set of real numbers.

Commutativity: Let a, b ∈ A. * is

commutative if a * b = b * a.

Associativity: Let a, b, c ∈ A. * is

associative if a * (b* c) = (a * b) * c.

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Distributivity: Let a, b, c ∈ A. For any two binary
operations * and Δ, * distributes over Δ if a* (b Δ c)
= (a* b) Δ (a * c).
Multiplication distributes over addition for real
numbers.

Identity: Let e, a ∈ A. e is the identity

element in A if e * a = a * e = a. The identity
element is unique to the set.
The identity for addition is 0 and the identity for
multiplication is 1.

Inverse: Let a, b ∈ A. a is the inverse of b

and b the inverse of a if a * b = b* a = e.
For any element a with respect to addition of
real numbers, the inverse of a is -a since
a + (-a) = (-a) + (a) = 0.
For multiplication of real numbers, the inverse
𝟏
of a is𝒂 except when a = 0.

The multiplicative inverse of 0 does not exist.

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Mathematical proofs
Proof by exhaustion: Prove a statement is true for
every value.

Direct proof: A flow of implication beginning with

P and ending with Q.
We assume that P is true and show that Q must be
true.

Proof by contradiction: Assume a statement is

possible and reach a contradiction.

Proof by counterexample: Given a universal

statement, find a single statement for which the
universal statement is not true and you will
disprove the universal statement.
You can disprove something by finding a single
counter example, but you cannot prove
something by finding one example.

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Section 3 – Principle of mathematical induction

Sequences

Series: sum of the terms of a sequence

i. ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 : sum all numbers 1 to n

ii. ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑐 : nc

iii. ∑ 𝑐𝑢𝑟 = c ∑ 𝑢𝑟

iv. ∑ (ur + vr) = ∑ ur + ∑ vr

𝑛 (𝑛+1)
v. ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 =
2

𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
vi. ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟2 =
6

𝑛2 (𝑛+1)2
vii. ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟3 =
4

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Proof by mathematical induction

• Prove the statement true for n = 1

• Assume the statement true for n = k

• Prove the statement true for n = k + 1

• Hence, by mathematical induction, the

statement is true for all n

• Application of proof by mathematical

induction: i)Series ii)Divisibility tests

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 Section 4 - Polynomials

Degree of a polynomial

Remainder theorem:

When a polynomial f(x) is divided by x - ʎ, the

remainder is f(ʎ).

Factor theorem:

If x - ʎ is a factor of f(x), then f(ʎ) = 0.

x2 - y2 = (x - y) (x + y)

x3 - y3 = (x- y) (x2 +xy + y2)

x3 +y3 = (x + y) (x2 - xy + y2)

x4 – y4 = (x - y) (x + y) (x2 + y2)

x5 - y5 = (x - y) (x4 + x3y + x2y2 + xy3 + y4)

x5 +y5 = (x+y) (x4 - x3y + x2y2 - xy3 + y4)

x6 -y6 = (x- y) (x + y) (x2 + xy + y2) (x2 - xy + y2)

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 Section 5 – Indices, Surds and Logarithms

Indices

√𝑥𝑦 = √𝑥√𝑦

𝑥 √𝑥
√𝑦 =
√𝑦

am × an = am+n

𝑎𝑚
= am-n
𝑎𝑛

1
a-m = 𝑎𝑚

a0 = 1

(am)n = amn
1
𝑚
𝑎 𝑚 = √𝑎
𝑚 1 1
𝑎 𝑛 = (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = (𝑎𝑛 )𝑚
𝑚
𝑛 𝑛
𝑎 𝑛 = √ 𝑎 𝑚 = ( √𝑎 ) 𝑚

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Surds

y = ax, a > 1

y = ax, 0 < a < 1

y = logex = ln x

ln 1 = 0

ln e = 1

ln x + ln y = ln xy
𝑥
ln x – ln y = ln (𝑦)

ln xn = nlnx

log 𝑥
loga x = log𝑏 𝑎
𝑏

elnf(x) = f(x)

In ef(x) = f(x)

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Logarithms
y = ax,a > 1
Domain is x ∈ ℝ, Range: y > 0
y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote
ax is an increasing function and is one-to-one

y=ax, 0 < a < 1

Domain is x € ℝ, Range: y > 0
y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote
ax is a decreasing function and is one-to-one

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x = ay ↔ y = log 𝑎 𝑥
y = log 𝑎 𝑥
Domain is x ∈ ℝ+, Range: y ∈ ℝ
y-axis is a vertical asymptote
The function is decreasing if 0 < a <1 and
increasing if a > 1.

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 Section 6 - Functions

A function f from a set A to a set B assigns to each a

∈ A a single element f(a) in set B. The element in

set B is called the image of a under f. The set A is

called the domain of the function, the set B is

called the codomain of the function. The range of

the function is the set of elements that are the

images of a ∈ A.

A function can be described:

i. using an arrow diagram

ii. as a set of ordered pairs

iii. using a graph

iv. by a formula

v. by listing values.

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Vertical line test: If a line drawn parallel to the y-

axis cuts the graph at most once, the relation is a

function.

One-to-one (injective): A function f: X→Y is

injective if every element of Y is mapped onto by
one and only one element of X. (No two x-values
can have the same y-image).
To show that f(x) is one-to-one:
Method 1: If f(a) = f(b) → a = b, then f(x) is one-
to-one.
Method 2: A line drawn parallel to the x-axis on the
graph of f(x) must cut f(x) at most once.

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Onto (surjective): A function f: X → Y is surjective
if every y is mapped onto by at least one x.

For a surjective function the codomain and the

range must be the same.

To show that f(x) is onto: a line drawn parallel to

the x-axis must cut f(x) at least once if f(x) is onto.

Bijective: A function f: X → Y is bijective if it is

one-to-one and onto.

Inverse functions: The inverse of f(x) is denoted by

f-1 (x). f-1(x) exists if f(x) is one-to-one.

Domain of f(x) = range of f-1(x)

Range of f(x) = domain of f-1(x)

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To sketch f-1(x): reflect f(x) in the line y = x.
ff-1(x) = F-1 f(x) = x
For gf(x), the range of f is the domain of g.

𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
If > 0 for b > a, then f(x) is increasing in
𝑏−𝑎

(a,b).
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
If < 0 for b > a, then f(x) is a decreasing in
𝑏−𝑎

(a,b).

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Sketching graphs from y = f(x):
1
(i) f(ax): stretch along the x-axis by factor 𝑎

(ii) af(x): stretch along the y-axis by

factor a.

(iii) f(x + a): shift to the left by a units if a is

positive and a shift to the right by a units if a is

negative.

(iv) f(x) + a: shift upwards by a units if a is positive

and a shift downwards by a units if a is negative.

(v) f(-x): reflect f(x) in the y-axis.

(vi) -f(x): reflect f(x) in the x-axis.

(vii) f(x): reflect anything below the x-axis to above

the x-axis, the section of the curve above the x-axis

remains as it is.

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 Section 7 – Cubic Polynomials

Ouadratics

Let a, ß be the roots of the equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0
−𝑏 𝑐
a+ß= ,aß=
𝑎 𝑎

Given the sum of the roots and the product of the

roots the equation is:

x2 - (sum of the roots) x + (product of the roots) = 0

a2+ ß2 = (a + ß)2 – 2aß

a2 - ß2 = (a - ß) (a + ß)

(a -ß)2 = (a + ß)2 - 4aß

If a > ß, (a - ß) is positive

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Cubics
Let a, ß, y be the roots of

ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0
−𝑏
a+ ß +y = 𝑎

𝑐
aß+ ßy + ya =
𝑎

𝑑
aßy = - 𝑎

a2 + ß 2 + y2 = (a + ß + y)2 - 2(aß + ß y + ya)

or ∑a2= (∑a)2 - 2∑a ß

∑a3 - (∑a)3 -3 (∑a) ∑ (aß) + 3aßy

The cubic equation is:

x3- (sum of the roots) x2 + (sum of the product of

two of the roots at a time) x- (product of the roots)

=0

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 Section 8 – Inequalities and the modulus function

Properties of inequalities

If a > b, then a + c > b + c

If a > b and c > 0, then ac > bc

If a > b and c < 0, then ac < bc

1 1
If a > b, then 𝑎 < 𝑏

Solving inequalities using a sign table

i. Make the function f(x) > 0 or f(x) < 0

ii. Identify the critical values of f(x).

iii. Draw up a sign table using the critical

values and the factors of the function.

iv. Identify the solution set.

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Modulus function

𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
|𝑥| = ( 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0 )
−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0

|𝑥|2 = x2

|𝑥𝑦| = |𝑥||𝑦|

𝑥 |𝑥|
|𝑦| = |𝑦|

|𝑥| < |𝑦| if and only if x2 < y2

|𝑥| > c if and only if x > c or x < -c.

|𝑥| < c, where c is a constant if and only if –c< x< c.

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Section 9 - Trigonometry

Graphs and general solutions

General solution of sin x: x = n𝜋 + (-1)na, n ∈ ℤ

General solution of cos x: x = 2 n𝜋 ± a, n ∈ ℤ

General solution of tan x: x= n𝜋 + a, n ∈ ℤ

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Trigonometric identities

sin2 𝜃 + cos2𝜃 = 1

tan2𝜃 + 1 = sec2𝜃

1 + cot2𝜃= cosec2 𝜃

sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B

cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B ± sin A sin B

tan A ± tan B
tan (A ± B) =. 1 ∓ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵

sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

cos 2𝜃= cos2𝜃- sin2𝜃

cos 2𝜃 = 2 cos2 𝜃 - 1

cos 2𝜃 = 1 - 2 sin2 𝜃

2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
tan 2 𝜃 = 1 −𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃

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 𝜃
If t = tan 2 , then:
2𝑡
sin 𝜃 = 𝑡 2 + 1
1 −𝑡 2
cos 𝜃= 1 + 𝑡 2
2𝑡
tan 𝜃= 1 − 𝑡 2

2sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A - B)

2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) - sin (A - B)
2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A - B)
-2sin A sin B = cos (A + B) - cos (A - B)

𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
sin A + sin B = 2sin A + B cos A-E
2 2
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
sin A - sin B = 2cos sin
2 2
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
cos A + cos B = 2cos cos
2 2
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
cos A – cos B = -2sin sin
2 2

➢ a cos 𝜃 + b sin 𝜃 = r cos 𝜃

where r > 0 and 0° < a < 90°
➢ Maximum (a cos 𝜃 + b sin 𝜃) = r,
when cos (𝜃 - a) = 1
➢ Minimum (a cos 𝜃 + b sin 𝜃) = -r,
when cos (𝜃 - a) = -1

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 Section 10 – Coordinate geometry
Circles
➢ A circle is the locus of a point which moves
in a plane so that it is equidistant from a
fixed point.
➢ Equation of a circle centre (0, 0) and radius
r: x2+y2=r2
➢ Equation of a circle centre (a, b) and radius
r: (x-a)2 + (y - b)2 = r2
➢ General equation of a circle:
Ax2 + By2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0, A = B

➢ Parametric equation of a circle centre (a, b)

and radius r:
x = a + r cos𝜃 y = b + r sin𝜃
or
x = a + r sin𝜃 y = b + r cos𝜃

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 𝑦0 − 𝑏
➢ Gradient of the normal at P =
𝑥0 − 𝑎

Since the tangent is perpendicular to the radius, the

𝑦0 − 𝑏
gradient of the tangent of P is -
𝑥0 − 𝑎

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➢ Given three points on a circle we can find its

equation by using the general form

(x-a)2 + (y- b)2 = r2.

We form three equations and solve them

simultaneously to find a, b and r.

➢ Or, if the circle passes through P, Q and R,

the centre of the circle is the point of

intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of

PQ and QR. The radius can be found using

the centre and any of the points P, Q and R.

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Ellipses
➢ An ellispse is the locus of points, the sum of
whose distance from two fixed points is
constant. The two fixed points are the foci of
the ellipse.
➢ Equation of an ellipse with centre (0, 0) and
𝑥2 𝑦2
foci at (c, 0) and (-c, 0) is: 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1

➢ Equation of an ellipse with foci (0, c) and (0,

𝑥2 𝑦2
-c) is: 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1

➢ Equation of an ellipse with centre (h, k) and

major axis parallel to the x-axis is:
(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏2

Foci are at (h + c, k) and (h - c, k).

➢ Equation of an ellipse with centre (h, k) and
major axis parallel to the y-axis is:
(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
+ =1
𝑏2 𝑎2

Foci are at (h, k + c) and (h, k - c).

➢ General equation of an ellipse:
Ax2 + B2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0, A ≠ B

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➢ Graph of an ellipse centre C, foci F1, and F2

➢ Parametric equations of an ellipse centre (h,

k) and radius r:
x = h + a cos t y = k+ b sin t
➢ Gradient of the tangent at P (a cos t, b sin t)
−𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡
is 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡
a sin t
and the gradient of the normal is b cos t

➢ Equation of the tangent can be found by

using the gradient and point.

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Parabolas
➢ A parabola is a set of all points in a plane,
which are at the same distance from a fixed-
point P as they are from a fixed line I. P is
called the focus and I is called the directrix.
➢ Equation of a parabola with centre (0, 0) and
opening upwards is: x2 = 4ay
➢ Equation of a parabola with centre (0, 0) and
opening to the right is: y2 = 4ax
➢ Equation of a parabola with axis of
symmetry parallel to the y-axis is:
y = ax2 + bx + c a ≠ 0
➢ Equation of a parabola with axis of
symmetry parallel to the x-axis is:
x = ay2 + by + c a≠0
➢ Equation of a parabola in vertex form:
y = a(x - h)2 + k
or
y = a(y-k)2 + h

35
 ➢ Equation of a parabola in conics form:
4p (y - k) = (x - h)2
or
4p (x - h) = (y-k)2
where p is the distance from the vertex to the focus
(also the distance from the vertex to the directrix).
(2p is the distance from the focus to the directrix).

➢ Parametric equations of a parabola are:

x = at2 y = 2at t ∈ ℝ, a > 0
➢ Gradient of the tangent to a parabola at P
1
(at2, 2at) is
𝑡

➢ Gradient of the normal to a parabola at P

(at2, 2at) is - t.

36
 Section 11 – Vectors in three dimensions

𝑢1 𝑣1
𝑢 𝑣
Let u = ( 2 ) and v =( 2 )
𝑢3 𝑣3
𝑢1 + 𝑣1
u + v = (𝑢2 + 𝑣2 )
𝑢3 + 𝑣3
𝑢1 − 𝑣1
u – v = (𝑢2 − 𝑣2 )
𝑢3 − 𝑣3
𝑢1 λu 1
λ = (𝑢2 )= ( λu2 ) , λ ∈ ℝ
𝑢3 λu3
u = v iff u1 = v1, u2 = v2, u3 = v3
u • v = u1v1 + u2v2 + u3v3

|𝑢| = √𝑢 2 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢2
1 2 3
A unit vector is a vector with magnitude 1 unit
𝒖
A unit vector in the direction of u is |𝒖|

u • v = |𝑢||𝑣 |cos 𝜃, where 𝜃 is the angle between u

and v.
u and v are perpendicular iff u • v = 0.
u and v are parallel iff one is a scalar multiple of the
other.

37
 1 0 0
i = (0) , j= (1) , k= (0)
0 0 1
𝑎
(𝑏 ) = ai +bj + ck
𝑐

Lines
Let a be a point on a line and m be the direction
vector. The equation of the line is r = a + λm, λ ∈ ℝ

Let p and q be two points on a line.

The equation of the line is r= p+λ (q-p), λ ∈ ℝ
Vector equation of a line:
𝑎 𝑥0
r = (𝑏 ) +λ (𝑦0 ) , λ ∈ ℝ
𝑐 𝑧0
Cartesian equation of a line:
𝑥−𝑎 𝑦−𝑏 𝑧−𝑐
= =
𝑥0 𝑦0 𝑧0

Parametric equations of a line:

𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑥0
λ ∈ ℝ {𝑦 = 𝑏 + 𝜆𝑦0
𝑧 = 𝑐 + 𝜆𝑧0
X= a + 1xo y=b+1yo < 1 € R

38
Skew lines are lines that are not parallel and do not
intersect.

The angle between two lines is the angle between

their direction vectors.

Two lines are perpendicular iff the scalar product of

their direction vectors is 0.

Planes
̂ be a unit vector perpendicular to a plane and d
Let 𝒏
be the distance from the origin to the plane. The
̂=d
equation of the plane is: r · 𝒏

Let a be a point on a plane and n a vector

perpendicular to the plane. The equation of the
plane is: r · n = a· n
Vector equation of a plane:
𝐴
r . (𝑩) ·D
𝑪
Cartesian equation of a plane:
Ax + By + Cz = D
𝐴
Where (𝑩) is a vector perpendicular to the plane.
𝑪

39
 Section 12 – Limits and continuity

Limits
Exists:
lim 𝑐 = c, where c is a constant.
𝑥→𝑏

lim 𝑥 𝑛 = bn where b is a positive integer.

𝑥→𝑏

lim (f(x) + g(x)) = lim f(x) + lim g(x)

𝑥→𝑏 𝑥→𝑏 𝑥→𝑏

lim (cf(x)) = c lim f(x) , where c is a constant.

𝑥→𝑏 𝑥→𝑏

lim f(x) g(x) = lim f(x) × lim g(x)

𝑥→𝑏 𝑥→𝑏 𝑥→𝑏

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)

lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥→𝑏 Provided that lim g(x) ≠ 0.
𝑥→𝑏 lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑏
𝑥→𝑏

lim (𝑓(𝑥))n = (lim 𝑓(𝑥))n

𝑥→𝑏 𝑥→𝑏

lim √𝑓(𝑥) = √ lim (𝑓(𝑥))

𝑥→𝑏 𝑥→𝑏

Does not exist:

A limit does not exist, if:
a) the left-hand limit ≠ right-hand limit
b) f(x) oscillates infinitely
c) f(x) increases or decreases infinitely

40
Methods of finding limits:
o Direct substitution
o Factorizing
o Rationalizing
o Limits tending to infinity: treat differently

Special limits
sin 𝜃
lim =1
𝜃→0 𝜃
cos 𝜃 − 1
lim =0
𝜃→0 𝜃

Continuity
Continuous:
f(x) is continuous at x = a, if:
a)lim 𝑓(𝑥) = l1
𝑥→𝑎

b) f(a) = l2
c)l1 = l2

Discontinuous:
Removable - Point
Non-removable – Jump Infinite

41
 Section 13 – Differentiation
Notation for differentiation
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
fꞌ(x), 𝑑𝑥 , fꞌ(x), yꞌ, 𝑑𝑥 (f(x))

Definition:
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
fꞌ(x) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝒅
(𝒙𝒏 ) = nxn-1
𝒅𝒙
𝑑
(𝑎𝑥 𝑛 ) = anxn-1, where a is a constant
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
((𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 ) = an(ax+b)n-1, where a is a constant
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(sin x) = cos x
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(cos x) = -sin x
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(tan x) = sec2 x
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(sec x) = sec x tan x
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(cosec x) = -cosec x cot x
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(cot x) = -cosec2 x
𝑑𝑥

42
Standard results
Chain rule:
𝑑
(fg(x)) = f(gꞌ(x)) × gꞌ(x)
𝑑𝑥

Product rule:
y=uv, where u and v are functions of x
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
→ 𝑑𝑥 = u 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥

Quotient rule:
𝑢
y= 𝑣 , where u and v are functions of x
𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒗
𝒅𝒚 𝒗 −𝒖
→ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒗𝟐

43
 Section 14 – Application of differentiation
Tangents and normals
𝑑𝑦
a) Gradient of a tangent = 𝑑𝑥
−1
b) Gradient of a normal = 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥

Rate of change
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒙
= ÷
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Curve sketching
Look for:
▪ intercepts
▪ turning points
▪ asymptotes

𝑃 (𝑥)
Asymptotes occur on rational functions f(x) = 𝑄(𝑥)

Vertical asymptotes occur at Q(x) = 0

Horizontal asymptotes occur at lim f(x) = l
𝑥→∞

→ y = l is a horizontal asymptote.

44
Graph of a polynomial
i. Find where the curve cuts the x- and y-axis
if possible.
ii. Find values of y for values of x between the
points where the graph cut the x-axis.
iii. Draw a smooth, continuous curve.

Increasing and decreasing functions

𝑑𝑦
A function is increasing over an interval if 𝑑𝑥 > 0

over the interval.

𝑑𝑦
A function is decreasing over an interval if 𝑑𝑥 < 0

over the interval.

45
Stationary points
𝑑𝑦
Stationary points exist at 𝑑𝑥 = 0

First derivative test for classification of x = a

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
If 𝑑𝑥 < 0 for x < a or 𝑑𝑥 > 0for x > a, then there is a
minimum point when x = a.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
If 𝑑𝑥 > 0 for x < a or 𝑑𝑥 < 0 for x > a, then there is a
maximum point when x = a.
𝑑𝑦
If 𝑑𝑥 does not change sign as it passes through a,
then there is a point of inflexion when x = a.

Second derivative test for classification of x = a

𝑑2 𝑦
If 𝑑𝑥 2 > 0 when x = a, then there is a minimum
point at x = a.
𝑑2 𝑦
If 𝑑𝑥 2 < 0 when x = a, then there is a maximum point
at x = a.
𝑑2 𝑦
If 𝑑𝑥 2 = 0, you must test further (in this case you
can go back to the first derivative test).

𝑑2 𝑦
Points of inflexion occur at 𝑑𝑥 2 = 0. (You must
check concavity since this is not a necessary
condition.)

46
 Section 15 – Integration
Integration is the reverse of differentiation

∫ 𝑐𝑓(𝑥) dx = c∫ f(x) dx

∫ 𝑓(𝑥) ± g(x) dx = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)dx ± g(x) dx

𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) dx = F(b) - F(a)
𝑏 b
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) dx = ∫a f(t) dt
a a
∫0 𝑓(𝑥) dx ∫0 f(a-x) dx, a > 0
𝑏 b
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) dx = - ∫a f(x) dx

Some standard results

xn+1
∫ x n dx = n+1
+ c, n ≠ -1
1 (ax+b)n+1
∫(ax + b)n dx = a n+1
+ c, n ≠ -1
∫ sin x dx = - cos x + c
∫ cos x dx = sin x + c
∫ sec 2 x dx = tan x + c
∫ cosec 2 x dx = -cot x + c
sinn+1 x
∫ sinn x cos x dx = n+1
+ c, n ≠ -1
cosn+1 x
∫ cosn x sin x dx = n+1
+ c, n ≠ -1
tann+1 x
∫ tann x sec2 x dx = n+1
+ c, n ≠ -1
1
∫ sin2 x dx = 2 ∫ 1- cos2x dx
1
∫ cos2 x dx = 2 ∫ 1 + cos 2x dx
∫ tan2 x dx = ∫ sec 2 x -1 dx

47
Section 16 – Applications of Integration

48
49
50
 Section 17 – Differential equations

i. First order differential equations:

𝑑𝑦
= f(x) g(y)
𝑑𝑥
1
ii. Separate the variables: 𝑔(𝑦) dx = f(x) dx
1
iii. Integrate both sides:∫ 𝑔(𝑦) dy = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
iv. Do not forget to add the constant of
integration.
v. If x and y are given, use these values to find
the constant.

a. Worded equations
b. Identify the variables clearly.
c. Remember a differential equation represents
a rate of change.
d. One variable will be changing with respect
to the other: this gives the rate of change.
e. For example: x changes proportional to t
𝑑𝑥
gives: = kt
𝑑𝑡
f. Follow the steps for solving first order
differential equations.

𝑑2 𝑦
= f(x)
𝑑2 𝑥

Integrate twice to solve. At each stage introduce a

constant of integration.

51