Bachelor of Science Degree in Computer Science

National Exit Examination

Database Systems
Outlines

 Database Management System

 Fundamental of Database Systems
 Advance Database Systems
1. General Objective
 Fundamental of Database Systems
 Introduce database management systems, with a focus on how to organize, maintain, and
retrieve data efficiently and effectively.
 Advance Database Systems
 Introduce the concepts of database system architecture, query optimization, parallel and
distributed database systems.
2. Learning outcomes
 Fundamental of Database Systems
 Understand the principles of database design
 Apply the database concepts to real world database design
 Design database systems for real world scenarios
 Advance Database Systems
 Describe the main concepts of the object oriented model
 Use different recovery methods when there is a database failure
 Design a distributed database system in homogenous and heterogeneous environments
 Evaluate a set of query processing strategies
1. Principles of Database Design:
Database can be defined as a collection of related data stored in a structured manner. The process of
designing a database involves defining the data structure, relationships, and constraints that will be
used to store and retrieve data.
- Understanding the requirements of the users is of utmost importance for designing a
database.
- Define the purpose of the database, the types of data it will store, and how the data will be
organized.
- Ensure that the database is flexible, maintainable, and supports efficient queries.
- Follow the normalization rules to reduce redundancy and maintain consistency in the data.
- Determine the key constraints, relationships between tables, and the entities and attributes
required for the system.
- Decide on the proper indexing strategy to optimize search performance.
- Choose an appropriate database management system (DBMS) that can support the database
requirements.
In general the Principles of Database Design are:
1. Data Independence: It is important to design a database in such a way that changes made to
one aspect of the database do not have an impact on other aspects of the database. This is
known as data independence.
2. Use constraints: Constraints are rules that are applied to data in the database to ensure
accuracy and consistency.
3. Use indexing: Indexing is used to improve database performance by allowing for faster data
retrieval.
4. Normalization: Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database in order to
minimize redundancy and dependency. It is a key principle of database design.
5. Entity-Relationship Model (ER Model): The ER Model is a popular method of data modeling
and database design. It involves defining an entity (a person, place, or thing that data is
collected about), its attributes (the characteristics of the entity), and relationships between the
entities.
6. Establish relationships between tables: Relationships between tables should be established to
ensure data consistency and integrity.
 7. Use of Primary and Foreign Keys: Primary keys are unique identifiers for each record in a
table, while foreign keys are used to link tables together in a relationship, allowing data to be
joined and queried across multiple tables.
8. Consistency: Consistency is important in database design to ensure data is accurate and
reliable. This is achieved through the use of data types, constraints, and rules.
9. Scalability: Database design must be scalable to allow for growth and changing requirements
over time. This can be achieved through the use of partitioning, indexing, and other
performance optimization techniques.
10. Security: Database security is important to prevent unauthorized access or modification of
data. Access control, encryption, and other security measures should be implemented to
protect sensitive data.
11. Choose appropriate data types: It is important to choose appropriate data types for each field
in the database to ensure data accuracy and consistency.
Steps in Database Design Process:
1. Requirements Gathering/Analysis:
First step in designing a database is to determine the requirements of the system or application. This
includes identifying the type of data that needs to be stored, how it will be used, and who will be
using it. This step involves identifying the needs of the organization, such as the types of data that
needs to be stored and the relationships between the data. During this phase, it is important to
identify the key stakeholders and their requirements, as well as any limitations like budgets,
timeframes or technical constraints.
2. Conceptual Design:
Once the requirements have been identified, the next step is to create a conceptual design of the
database. This involves creating an entity-relationship diagram (ERD) that defines the entities,
attributes, and relationships between them.
3. Logical Design:
The logical design involves creating a data model from the ERD created in the conceptual design
phase. This includes defining tables, fields, and relationships between them. This involves mapping
out the information needs from the conceptual design onto specific data structures, such as tables and
columns.
4. Physical Design:
The physical design involves defining the physical storage requirements of the database. This
includes choosing the database management system, selecting hardware and software components,
defining file systems, storage allocation, indexing strategy, defining the storage media, access
methods, and security requirements.
5. Implementation:
Once the physical design is complete, the database can be implemented. This involves creating
tables, views, indexes, and other database objects.
6. Testing and Maintenance:
After the database is implemented, it must be tested to ensure that it is working correctly. The
designed database is tested extensively to find any bugs, whether it satisfies user requirements and
data integrity. Once issues are resolved, the database is deployed into production. Ongoing
maintenance activities include monitoring and updating the database for optimization, security,
backups and recovery.
These are the main stages of the database design process. Keep in mind that iterative approach is
common in this domain, and there might be changes required in previous phases of the process
during its evolution.
Example: Let's say we are designing a database for a library. Our database would need to store
information about books, borrowers, and borrowing transactions. Here's an example of how we
might design our database:
1. Tables:
- Book table: contains information about each book (e.g. title, author, ISBN, genre, publisher).
- Borrower table: contains information about each borrower (e.g. name, address, phone number,
email).
- Borrowing table: contains information about each borrowing transaction (e.g. borrower ID, book
ID, borrowing date, due date, return date).
2. Primary keys:
- Book ID: a unique identifier for each book in the Book table.
- Borrower ID: a unique identifier for each borrower in the Borrower table.
- Borrowing ID: a unique identifier for each borrowing transaction in the Borrowing table.
3. Relationships:
- One-to-many relationship between Book table and Borrowing table, as each book can be borrowed
multiple times.
- One-to-many relationship between Borrower table and Borrowing table, as each borrower can
borrow multiple books.
- Foreign keys: Borrowing table contains foreign keys to Book ID and Borrower ID, which link the
Borrowing table to the Book and Borrower tables.
4. Indexes:
- Index on Book ID in the Book table for faster lookup of book information.
- Index on Borrower ID in the Borrower table for faster lookup of borrower information.
- Index on Borrowing ID
Exercise
Choose the best answer from the given alternatives and write it on the space provided.
1. Which of the following is the process of organizing data in a database to minimize redundancy
and dependency? (Remembering)
a) Normalization
b) Indexing
c) Security
d) Backup and Recovery
2. What is the purpose of entity-relationship modeling in database design? (Understanding)
a) To identify the entities in the system being modeled
b) To eliminate data anomalies
c) To speed up query performance
d) To ensure that data is secure from unauthorized access
3. A primary key is used to: (Remembering)
a) Establish relationships between tables
b) Ensure data integrity
c) Speed up querying
d) Identify unique records in a table
4. Which of the following is a data structure that allows for faster searching of data within a table?
(Remembering)
a) Primary Key
b) Foreign Key
c) Check Constraint
d) Index
5. The goal of normalization is to: (Understanding)
a) Eliminate data anomalies
b) Establish relationships between tables
 c) Ensure data integrity
d) Improve query performance
6. Access controls and authentication mechanisms are used to: (Understanding)
a) Speed up query performance
b) Ensure data integrity
c) Secure data from unauthorized access
d) Establish relationships between tables
7. Which of the following is a critical component of database design that involves regularly backing
up data and having a plan in place for disaster recovery? (Remembering)
a) Normalization
b) Indexing
c) Security
d) Backup and Recovery
8. Which of the following is an example of a constraint that can be used to enforce data validation
rules? (Remembering)
a) Primary Key
b) Foreign Key
c) Check Constraint
d) Index
9. What is the purpose of indexing in database design? (Understanding)
a) To eliminate data redundancy
b) To establish relationships between tables
c) To ensure data integrity
d) To speed up query performance
10. Which of the following is a type of key that is used to establish relationships between tables?(
Remembering)
a) Primary Key
b) Foreign Key
c) Check Constraint
d) Index
Answer:
1. A - Normalization
2. A -To identify the entities in the system being modeled
 3. D -Identify unique records in a table
4. D - Index
5. A - Eliminate data anomalies
6. C -Secure data from unauthorized access
7. D -Backup and Recovery
8. C -Check Constraint
9. D -To speed up query performance
10. B - Foreign Key
2. Applying Database Concepts to Real-world Database Design:
Applying these principles to real-world database design involves careful consideration of the specific
requirements of the system being modeled and the trade-offs involved in choosing different design
options. It requires a combination of technical expertise and a deep understanding of the business
processes being modeled.
1. Identify the entities and relationships: The first step in designing a database is to identify the
entities (objects or concepts) involved in the system being modeled and the relationships
between them. This can be achieved through entity-relationship modeling.
2. Determine data requirements: Once the entities and relationships have been identified, the next
step is to determine the data requirements for each entity. This involves deciding what data
needs to be stored about each entity and how this data should be structured.
3. Choose an appropriate database model: There are several database models to choose from,
including relational, hierarchical, and object-oriented. The choice of model will depend on the
specific requirements of the system being modeled.
4. Normalize the schema: Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to
minimize redundancy and dependency. This involves breaking down tables into smaller, more
manageable tables to eliminate data anomalies.
5. Establish relationships: Relationships between tables can be established using primary keys
and foreign keys. Primary keys uniquely identify records in a table, while foreign keys
establish relationships between tables.
6. Create indexes: Indexes can be used to speed up querying by allowing for faster searching of
data within a table.
7. Implement security measures: Security measures such as access controls, authentication
mechanisms, and encryption should be implemented to protect sensitive data from
unauthorized access.
 8. Optimize performance: Regular monitoring of database performance metrics can help identify
areas where performance can be improved. This might involve adjusting indexing strategies or
optimizing query execution plans.
9. Backup and recovery strategy: A backup and recovery strategy should be developed to ensure
that critical data can be recovered in the event of hardware failure or other catastrophic events.
Generally the design process consists of the following steps:
 Identify the entities, attributes, and relationships that are relevant to the database.
 Determine the normal forms the system needs to satisfy and whether they are linked to a
specific business process.
 Map conceptual design to physical structures by creating schema, tables, views, and indexes
appropriate to the requirements.
 Develop appropriate physical storage structures, including file organization, data
compression, partitioning, and clustering techniques.
 Implement data security controls and data backup and restoration procedures.
 Tune the database for performance using query optimization techniques.
 Evaluate and improve the database design based on feedback from end-users.
Example: University Registration Data Model
An e-learning university needs to keep details of its students and staff, the courses that it offers and
the performance of the students who study its courses. The university is administered in four
geographical regions (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland). Information about each
student should be initially recorded at registration. This includes the student’s identification number
issued at the time, name, year of registration and the region in which the student is located. A student
is not required to enroll in any courses at registration; enrollment in a course can happen at a later
time. Information recorded for each member of the tutorial and counseling staff must include the
staff number, name and region in which he or she is located. Each staff member may act as a
counselor to one or more students, and may act as a tutor to one or more students on one or more
courses. It may be the case that, at any particular point in time, a member of staff may not be
allocated any students to tutor or counsel. Each student has one counselor, allocated at registration,
who supports the student throughout his or her university career. A student is allocated a separate
tutor for each course in which he or she is enrolled. A staff member may only counsel or tutor a
student who is resident in the same region as that staff member. Each course that is available for
study must have a course code, a title and a value in terms of credit points. A course is either a 15-
point course or a 30-point course. A course may have a quota for the number of students enrolled in
it at any one presentation. A course need not have any students enrolled in it (such as a course that
has just been written and offered for study). Students are constrained in the number of courses they
can be enrolled in at any one time. They may not take courses simultaneously if their combined
points total exceeds 180 points. For assessment purposes, a 15-point course may have up to three
assignments per presentation and a 30-point course may have up to five assignments per
presentation. The grade for an assignment on any course is recorded as a mark out of 100.
Design Process
1. The first step is to determine the entities (real world objects). These are typically nouns:
Staff, Course, Student and Assignment.
2. The next step is to document all attributes for each entity. This is where you need to ensure
that all tables are properly normalized.
3. Create the initial ERD and review it with the users.
4. Make changes if needed after the ERD review.
5. Verify the ER model with users to finalize the design.
Entity

Student (StudentID, Name, Registered, Region, StaffNo)

Staff (StaffNo, Name, Region) – This table contains instructors and other staff members.
Course (CourseCode, Title, Credit, Quota, StaffNo)
Enrollment (StudentlD, CourseCode, DateEnrolled, FinalGrade)
Assignment (StudentID, CourseCode, AssignmentNo, Grade)

Constraints
• A staff member may only tutor or counsel students who are located in the same region as
the staff member.
• Students may not enroll for more than 180 points worth of courses at any one time.
• The attribute Credit (of Course) has a value of 15 or 30 points.
• A 30-point course may have up to five assignments; a 15-point course may have up to
three assignments.
• The attribute Grade (of Assignment) has a value that is a mark out of 100.
Assumptions
• A student has at most one enrollment in a course as only current enrollments are
recorded.
• An assignment may be submitted only once.
Relationships (includes cardinality)
• Using Figure A.2, note that a student (record) is associated with (enrolled) with a
minimum of 1 to a maximum of many courses.
• Each enrollment must have a valid student.
• Note: Since the StudentID is part of the PK, it can’t be null. Therefore, any StudentID
entered, must exist in the Student table at least once to a maximum of 1 time. This
should be obvious since the PK cannot have duplicates.
Refer to Figure A.3. A staff record (a tutor) is associated with a minimum of 0 students to a
maximum of many students. A student record may or may not have a tutor.

Note: The StaffNo field in the Student table allows null values – represented by the 0 on the left
side. However, if a StaffNo exists in the student table it must exist in the Staff table maximum once
– represented by the 1.
Refer to Figure A.4. A staff record (instructor) is associated with a minimum of 0 courses to a
maximum of many courses.
A course may or may not be associated with an instructor.
Note: The StaffNo in the Course table is the FK, and it can be null. This represents the 0 on the left
side of the relationship. If the StaffNo has data, it has to be in the Staff table a maximum of once.
That is represented by the 1 on the left side of the relationship.
Refer to Figure A.5. A course must be offered (in enrollment) at least once to a maximum of many
times. The Enrollment table must contain at least 1 valid course to a maximum of many.

Refer to Figure A.6. An enrollment can have a minimum of 0 assignments or a maximum of many.
An assignment must be associated with at least 1 with a maximum of 1 enrollment.
Note: Every record in the Assignment table must contain a valid enrollment record. One enrollment
record can be associated with multiple assignments.

Exercise
Choose the best answer from the given alternatives and write it on the space provided.
1. Which of the following is the first step in designing a database?
a. Normalizing data
b. Identifying the purpose of the database
c. Establishing relationships between tables
d. Using primary keys
2. What is the purpose of normalizing data in a database?
a. To improve data consistency and integrity
b. To reduce redundancy
 c. To ensure data accuracy and consistency
d. All of the above
3. What is a primary key in a database?
a. A unique identifier for each record in a table
b. A field that establishes relationships between tables
c. A rule that is applied to data in the database
d. None of the above
4. What is a foreign key in a database?
a. A unique identifier for each record in a table
b. A field that establishes relationships between tables
c. A rule that is applied to data in the database
d. None of the above
5. What are constraints in a database?
a. Rules that are applied to data in the database
b. Fields that establish relationships between tables
c. Unique identifiers for each record in a table
d. None of the above
6. What is indexing in a database?
a. The process of organizing data to reduce redundancy
b. The process of establishing relationships between tables
c. The process of improving database performance by allowing for faster data retrieval
d. None of the above
7. Why is security important in database design?
a. To protect sensitive data
b. To improve database performance
c. To establish relationships between tables
d. None of the above
8. What is the purpose of testing a database before putting it into production?
a. To ensure that it is working correctly and efficiently
b. To reduce redundancy
c. To establish relationships between tables
d. None of the above
9. Which of the following is a benefit of normalizing data in a database?
 a. Improved data consistency and integrity
b. Reduced database performance
c. Increased redundancy
d. None of the above
10. What are relationships between tables in a database used for?
a. To ensure data consistency and integrity
b. To reduce redundancy
c. To establish unique identifiers for each record in a table
d. None of the above
Answer:
1. b. Identifying the purpose of the database
2. d. All of the above
3. a. A unique identifier for each record in a table
4. b. A field that establishes relationships between tables
5. a. Rules that are applied to data in the database
6. c. The process of improving database performance by allowing for faster data retrieval
7. a. To protect sensitive data
8. a. To ensure that it is working correctly and efficiently
9. a. Improved data consistency and integrity
10. a. To ensure data consistency and integrity
Exercise -2
1. Which of the following principles of database design ensures that changes made to one aspect of
the database do not impact other aspects of the database?
A. Data Normalization
B. Data Independence
C. Entity-Relationship Model
D. Data Consistency
2. Which of the following is used to minimize redundancy and dependency in a database?
A. Data Partitioning
B. Data Encryption
C. Data Normalization
D. Data Indexing
3. Which of the following statement is true about the Entity-Relationship model?
A. It helps in choosing the type of database to create
B. It defines attributes of entities
C. It groups data by entity type
D. It ensures consistency in the data
4. Which of the following principles of database design ensures data is accurate and reliable?
A. Data Normalization
B. Data Partitioning
C. Data Consistency
D. Data Encryption
5. Which of the following is used to speed up data retrieval in a database?
A. Indexing
B. Normalization
C. Partitioning
D. Encryption
6. Which of the following is implemented to prevent unauthorized access or modification of data?
A. Indexing
B. Data Normalization
C. Access Control
D. Data Encryption
7. Which of the following is a method of data modeling and database design?
A. Data Partitioning
B. Data Normalization
C. Entity-Relationship Model
D. Indexing
8. Which of the following is a key principle of database design?
A. Data Mining
B. Data normalization
C. Data Presentation
D. Data Encryption
Answer key
1. B. Data Independence
2. C. Data Normalization
3. B. It defines attributes of entities
4. C. Data Consistency
5. A. Indexing
6. C. Access Control
7. C. Entity-Relationship Model
8. B. Data Normalization
3. Designing Database Systems for Real-World Scenarios:
- Determine the aim of the system and the requirements of the stakeholders (e.g., users,
administrators, developers, etc.).
- Decide on the data model (i.e., relational, object-oriented, or NoSQL) best suited to the system
requirements.
- Create a functional specification that outlines the requirements of the database and interfaces with
other systems.
- Prepare a design document that describes the details of the system design and includes diagrams
and code snippets.
- Develop and test the database systems in a controlled environment, and iterate the test phase where
necessary.
Designing database systems for real-world scenarios involves identifying the entities and
relationships involved in the scenario and creating tables to represent them. Primary and foreign
keys are used to establish relationships between tables, and data types and constraints are used to
ensure data accuracy and consistency.
Examples of designing database systems for real-world scenarios could include:
1. Inventory management system: This system could include tables for products, suppliers, orders,
and inventory levels. The primary key for the product table could be a unique product ID, while
the foreign key in the orders table would link to the product table to show which products are
being ordered.
2. Healthcare management system: This system could include tables for patients, doctors,
appointments, prescriptions, and medical procedures. The primary key for the patient table could
be a unique patient ID, while the foreign key in the appointments table would link to the patient
table to show which patient has the appointment.
3. Social media platform: This system could include tables for users, posts, comments, and likes.
The primary key for the user table could be a unique user ID, while the foreign key in the posts
table would link to the user table to show which user created the post.
4. E-commerce platform: This system could include tables for products, customers, orders, and
payments. The primary key for the products table could be a unique product ID, while the
foreign key in the orders table would link to the product table to show which products are being
ordered.
5. Banking system: This system could include tables for customers, accounts, transactions, and
loans. The primary key for the customer table could be a unique customer ID, while the foreign
key in the accounts table would link to the customer table to show which account belongs to
which customer.
Exercise
Choose the best answer from the given alternatives and write it on the space provided.
1. What is the first step in designing a database system for a real-world scenario?
A) Identifying entities and relationships
B) Creating tables with primary and foreign keys
C) Defining data types and constraints
D) None of the above
2. Which of the following scenarios would require a healthcare management system?
A) Online shopping platform
B) Social media platform
C) Inventory management system
D) Hospital or clinic
3. In an inventory management system, which table would likely contain information about the
quantity of products in stock?
A) Products
B) Suppliers
C) Orders
D) Inventory levels
4. What are primary keys used for in a database system?
A) To establish relationships between tables
B) To specify the data type for a column
C) To ensure data accuracy and consistency
D) To uniquely identify a record in a table
5. Which of the following is an example of a foreign key in a database system?
A) A column that specifies a data type
 B) A column that ensures data consistency
C) A column in one table that references the primary key of another table
D) A column that contains a unique identifier for a record
6. Which of the following is NOT an example of a real-world scenario that requires a database
system?
A) Social media platform
B) Video gaming platform
C) E-commerce platform
D) Healthcare management system
7. What type of information would likely be stored in a table for transactions in a banking system?
A) Customer contact information
B) Account balances
C) Loan payment schedules
D) Product prices
8. In a social media platform, which table would likely contain information about the user's profile
picture?
A) Users
B) Posts
C) Comments
D) Likes
9. What is the purpose of data types and constraints in a database system?
A) To improve system performance
B) To increase data storage capacity
C) To ensure data accuracy and consistency
D) None of the above
10. Which of the following is NOT a step in designing a database system for a real-world scenario?
A) Identifying entities and relationships
B) Creating tables with primary and foreign keys
C) Defining data types and constraints
D) Writing program code for the system's interface
Answer keys:

1. A) Identifying entities and relationships

2. D) Hospital or clinic
3. D) Inventory levels
4. D) To uniquely identify a record in a table
5. C) A column in one table that references the primary key of another table
6. B) Video gaming platform
7. B) Account balances
8. A) Users
9. C) To ensure data accuracy and consistency
10. D) Writing program code for the system's interface

4. Main Concepts of the Object-oriented Model:

DBMS (Database Management System) is a software system designed to manage large amounts of
data. The object-oriented model is one of the data models used in DBMS. The object-oriented model
is based on the concepts of objects, classes, encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism, and
abstraction.
Object-oriented databases are a type of database management system. Different database
management systems provide additional functionalities. Object-oriented databases add
the database functionality to object programming languages, creating more manageable code bases.
An object database is managed by an object-oriented database management system (OODBMS). The
database combines object-oriented programming concepts with relational database principles.
 Objects are the basic building block and an instance of a class, where the type is either built-
in or user-defined.
 Classes provide a schema or blueprint for objects, defining the behavior.
 Methods determine the behavior of a class.
The main characteristic of objects in OODBMS is the possibility of user-constructed types. An
object created in a project or application saves into a database as is. Object-oriented databases
directly deal with data as complete objects. All the information comes in one instantly available
object package instead of multiple tables.
In contrast, the basic building blocks of relational databases, such as PostgreSQL or MySQL, are
tables with actions based on logical connections between the table data.

Object-Oriented Programming Concepts

Object-oriented databases closely relate to object-oriented programming concepts. The four main
ideas of object-oriented programming are:
 Polymorphism
 Inheritance
 Encapsulation
 Abstraction
Here are some of the main concepts of the object-oriented model in relation to DBMS:
1. Classes: In DBMS, classes are used to define the structure of the data to be stored in the database.
Classes represent entities or objects in the real world, such as customers, products, or orders. Each
class has its own set of properties or attributes that define the characteristics of the objects of that
class.
2. Objects: In DBMS, objects are instances of classes. Each object has its own set of values for the
properties or attributes of the class. Objects are stored in the database and can be retrieved, updated,
or deleted.
3. Encapsulation: Encapsulation is used in DBMS to hide the internal details of the objects and
provide a public interface for accessing them. This makes it easier to change the internal details
without affecting external code.

4. Inheritance: Inheritance is used in DBMS to define relationships between classes. Inheritance

allows one class to inherit properties and methods from another class. For example, a customer class
can inherit properties and methods from a person class.
5. Polymorphism: Polymorphism is used in DBMS to allow objects to take on different forms or
have multiple types. This can be achieved through inheritance or interfaces. For example, a customer
object can be treated as a person object.
6. Abstraction: Abstraction is used in DBMS to focus on the essential features of an object and
ignore the details. This makes it easier to reason about complex systems and to create reusable code.
For example, the essential features of a customer object might be their name, address, and phone
number, while the details might include their purchase history or credit score.
Overall, the object-oriented model is useful in DBMS for creating a more flexible and scalable data
model that reflects the real-world objects and relationships being modeled. By using classes, objects,
encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism, and abstraction, developers can create more modular and
maintainable database systems that can be easily extended and modified as needed.
In general objected oriented database includes;
 Objects are instances of classes that are created from blueprints which define their properties
and behavior.
 An object can communicate with other objects through messages that contain data.
  Encapsulation is used to hide an object's internal state and make it available through methods
that ensure consistency.
 Inheritance allows objects to inherit attributes and behavior from parent objects without
having to define them again.
 Polymorphism allows objects with different structures and behavior to be treated as if they
are the same type.
 Object Query Language (OQL) and Object Definition Language (ODL) are both used in
object-oriented databases. OQL is a programming language used to query object-oriented
databases while ODL is used for defining and creating object classes and their relationships
to other classes.
Object Query Language (OQL)
OQL is a declarative SQL-like language used to query object-oriented databases. The core of
OQL is similar to SQL in that it uses SELECT, FROM, and WHERE statements. However,
instead of querying rows and columns, OQL queries objects and their relationships.
Example:
Consider a relational database with two tables - Customers and Orders. To retrieve a list of all
customers who have placed an order in the last month, the SQL statement would be like:
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderDate FROM Customers INNER JOIN Orders
ON Customers.CustomerID = Orders.CustomerID WHERE Orders.OrderDate >= DATEADD
(month, -1, GETDATE())
However, if we convert this into an OQL statement, it would look like:
SELECT c.name, o.orderDate
FROM Customer c, Order o
WHERE c.customerId = o.customerId AND o.orderDate > 01.01.2021
2. Object Definition Language (ODL)
ODL is a language used for defining object classes and their relationships in object-oriented
databases. It specifies the attributes, operations, and relationships of an object class.
Example:
Consider a banking application where we need to store information about customers and their
accounts. We could define a Customer class and an Account class using ODL:
Class Customer {
att Name : string;
att Address : string;
 att Phone : string;
};
Class Account {
att AccountNumber : integer;
att Balance : float;
ref Customer : Customer;
};
In the above example, we define a Customer class with Name, Address, and Phone as attributes.
We also define an Account class with AccountNumber, Balance, and a reference to the Customer
class. The reference defines the relationship between the two classes - a customer can have
multiple accounts but an account can only have one customer.
Exercise
1. Which of the following defines the structure of data in an object-oriented database?
a) Attributes
b) Objects
c) Classes
d) Properties
Answer: c) Classes
2. What is encapsulation in the context of object-oriented databases?
a) The process of creating instances of a class
b) The act of hiding internal details of a class from outside code
c) The ability of an object to take on different forms or types
d) The relationship between inherited classes
Answer: b) The act of hiding internal details of a class from outside code
3. Inheritance in object-oriented databases allows:
a) Objects to take on multiple types
b) Classes to inherit properties and methods from other classes
c) Properties of an object to be hidden from outside code
d) Objects to be treated as different types based on the context
Answer: b) Classes to inherit properties and methods from other classes
4. What is polymorphism in object-oriented databases?
a) The process of creating instances of a class
b) The act of hiding internal details of a class from outside code
 c) The relationship between inherited classes
d) The ability of an object to take on different forms or types
Answer: d) The ability of an object to take on different forms or types
5. Abstraction in object-oriented databases focuses on:
a) Hiding internal details of a class from outside code
b) Creating instances of a class
c) Defining the structure of data in a database
d) Ignoring non-essential features of an object
Answer: d) Ignoring non-essential features of an object
6. Which of the following is an example of a class in a database?
a) Customer
b) Purchase history
c) Credit score
d) Order ID
Answer: a) Customer
7. What is an object in object-oriented databases?
a) A relationship between classes
b) A property or attribute of a class
c) An instance of a class with its own values for properties
d) A method or function of a class
Answer: c) An instance of a class with its values for properties
8. Which of the following is an example of inheritance in a database?
a) A customer object being treated as a person object
b) A customer object having purchase history
c) A customer object having a credit score
d) A customer object having an order ID
Answer: a) A customer object being treated as a person object
9. How does encapsulation increase flexibility and maintainability in a database system?
a) It makes it easier to reason about complex systems
b) It allows for internal changes without affecting external code
c) It defines relationships between classes
d) It allows objects to take on different forms or types
Answer: b) It allows for internal changes without affecting external code
10. What is the overall importance of object-oriented concepts in modern database systems?
 a) They allow for greater efficiency in data storage
b) They make it easier to integrate with other systems
c) They provide flexibility and scalability in data models
d) They eliminate the need for SQL queries
Answer: c) They provide flexibility and scalability in data models.

6. Recovery Methods for Database Failure:

Database failure can occur due to various reasons such as hardware failure, software failure, power
outage, human error, and natural disasters. It is essential to have a recovery plan in place to ensure
that the database can be restored to a consistent state after a failure.
Update Strategies of Database Recovery:
Update strategies are used to recover a database after a failure while minimizing the amount of data
loss. The following are the update strategies of database recovery:
1. Immediate Update (UNDO/REDO): In this strategy, changes made by a transaction are
immediately written to the database. If a failure occurs, the database can be restored to a
consistent state by undoing the changes made by the failed transaction.
2. Deferred Update (No-UNDO/ REDO): In this strategy, changes made by a transaction are not
immediately written to the database. Instead, they are recorded in a log file. If a failure occurs,
the changes can be applied from the log file to restore the database to a consistent state.
3. Shadow Paging: This strategy involves maintaining a shadow copy of the database that is
updated whenever a transaction modifies the database. In case of a failure, the shadow copy can
be used to restore the database to a consistent state.
4. Write-Ahead Logging: In this strategy, changes made by a transaction are written to a log file
before they are written to the database. If a failure occurs, the changes can be applied from the
log file to restore the database to a consistent state.
5. Checkpointing: This strategy involves periodically saving the state of the database to disk. If a
failure occurs, the database can be restored to the last checkpoint and then updated with changes
made after the checkpoint.
The following are additional recovery methods for database failure:
- Backup and Restore: Create regular backups of the database and restore from the most recent
backup if data is lost or corrupted.
- Rollback and Redo: Use transaction logs to roll back a transaction to a previous state or redo lost
transactions after recovery.
- Point-in-time recovery: Recover to a specific point in time by using archived logs to reverse or
replay transactions.
- Replication: Create redundant copies of the database across multiple locations and use these
copies to replace lost or corrupted data.
- Mirroring: Mirroring is a method where two copies of the same database are kept on different
servers. If one server fails, the other server takes over, ensuring continuous uninterrupted
operation. This method requires additional hardware and software, as well as the infrastructure to
support it.
1. Which of the following is an update strategy used for database recovery that involves
immediately writing changes to the database?
a. Deferred Update
b. Shadow Paging
c. Immediate Update
d. Write-Ahead Logging
Answer: c. Immediate Update (Remembering)
2. Which update strategy for database recovery involves periodically saving the state of the
database to disk?
a. Checkpointing
b. Immediate Update
c. Shadow Paging
d. Write-Ahead Logging
Answer: a. Checkpointing (Remembering)
3. Which update strategy for database recovery involves maintaining a shadow copy of the database
that is updated whenever a transaction modifies the database?
a. Deferred Update
b. Shadow Paging
c. Immediate Update
d. Write-Ahead Logging
Answer: b. Shadow Paging (Understanding)
4. Which update strategy for database recovery involves writing changes to a log file before they
are written to the database?
a. Deferred Update
b. Shadow Paging
 c. Immediate Update
d. Write-Ahead Logging
Answer: d. Write-Ahead Logging (Remembering)
5. Which update strategy for database recovery is used to restore the database to a consistent state
by undoing changes made by a failed transaction?
a. Deferred Update
b. Shadow Paging
c. Immediate Update
d. Write-Ahead Logging
Answer: c. Immediate Update (Understanding)
6. Which update strategy for database recovery involves applying changes from a log file to restore
the database to a consistent state after a failure?
a. Deferred Update
b. Shadow Paging
c. Immediate Update
d. Write-Ahead Logging
Answer: a. Deferred Update (Understanding)
7. Which update strategy for database recovery involves periodically saving the state of the
database and then updating it with changes made after the checkpoint?
a. Check pointing
b. Shadow Paging
c. Immediate Update
d. Write-Ahead Logging
Answer: a. Check pointing (Understanding)
8. Which update strategy for database recovery is used to restore the database to a consistent state
by applying changes from a log file?
a. Deferred Update
b. Shadow Paging
c. Immediate Update
d. Write-Ahead Logging
Answer: d. Write-Ahead Logging (Understanding)
9. Which update strategy for database recovery involves maintaining a shadow copy of the database
that is updated whenever a transaction modifies the database?
 a. Deferred Update
b. Shadow Paging
c. Immediate Update
d. Write-Ahead Logging
Answer: b. Shadow Paging (Understanding)
10. Which update strategy for database recovery is used to minimize data loss after a failure?
a. Check pointing
b. Shadow Paging
c. Immediate Update
d. Write-Ahead Logging
Answer: All of the above (Evaluating)
Design a distributed database system in homogenous and heterogeneous environments
A distributed database system (DDBS) refers to the use of multiple databases that are coordinated to
function as a single entity. A distributed database is basically a database that is not limited to one
system; it is spread over different sites, i.e, on multiple computers or over a network of computers. A
distributed database system is located on various sites that don’t share physical components. This
may be required when a particular database needs to be accessed by various users globally. It needs
to be managed such that for the users it looks like one single database.
Types:
There are two types of environments in which one can implement such a system, namely
homogenous and heterogeneous.
1. Homogeneous Database:
In a homogeneous database, all different sites store database identically. The operating system,
database management system, and the data structures used – all are the same at all sites. Hence,
they’re easy to manage. In a homogenous environment, all the databases have the same architecture
and operate under the same operating system. The design of a DDBS in a homogenous environment
is relatively straightforward as it involves creating interconnected databases with similar
characteristics. The following steps can be followed:
1. Determine the data requirements: Identify the data that needs to be stored and the
relationships between them.
2. Divide the data into segments: Based on the data requirements, divide the data into smaller
segments that can be easily managed.
 3. Create database instances: Set up multiple databases with the same structure and operating
system.
4. Establish communication channels: Establish communication channels between the databases
to ensure they can interact with each other.
5. Configure replication parameters: Ensure that there is accurate replication of data between
the databases so that changes made on one database are reflected on others.
6. Optimize performance: Optimize the system for maximum performance by fine-tuning the
replication, partitioning, and indexing of data.
7. Implement security measures: Implement security measures to ensure that the data is
protected and prevent unauthorized access.
2. Heterogeneous Database:
In a heterogeneous distributed database, different sites can use different schema and software that
can lead to problems in query processing and transactions. Also, a particular site might be
completely unaware of the other sites. Different computers may use a different operating system,
different database application. They may even use different data models for the database. Hence,
translations are required for different sites to communicate.
In a heterogeneous environment, different types of databases with various structures and operating
systems are used. The design of a DDBS in a heterogeneous environment is more complex than a
homogenous environment, and the following steps can be followed:
1. Determine the characteristics of the participating databases: Identify the differences between
the databases and determine how they will work together.
2. Develop a data model: Create a data model that can work with different types of databases
involved in the system.
3. Design and implement middleware: Create middleware software that can interface between
the databases and enable them to communicate with each other.
4. Implement data transformation: Develop methods of transforming the different data formats
into a common format that all databases can understand.
5. Optimize performance: As with a homogenous system, optimize the system for maximum
performance by fine-tuning the replication, partitioning, and indexing of data.
6. Implement security measures: Implement security measures to ensure that the data is
protected and prevent unauthorized access.
It is also essential to select the right software to implement the DDBS. Some popular choices include
Oracle RAC, MySQL Cluster, and Apache Cassandra, which all offer varying degrees of
functionality and scalability. Ultimately, when designing a DDBS in either a homogenous or
heterogeneous environment, it is vital to consider business requirements, scalability, performance,
and security.
Distributed Data Storage:
There are 2 ways in which data can be stored on different sites. These are:
1. Replication –
In this approach, the entire relationship is stored redundantly at 2 or more sites. If the entire
database is available at all sites, it is a fully redundant database. Hence, in replication,
systems maintain copies of data. This is advantageous as it increases the availability of data
at different sites. Also, now query requests can be processed in parallel. However, it has
certain disadvantages as well. Data needs to be constantly updated. Any change made at one
site needs to be recorded at every site that relation is stored or else it may lead to
inconsistency. This is a lot of overhead. Also, concurrency control becomes way more
complex as concurrent access now needs to be checked over a number of sites.
2. Fragmentation –
In this approach, the relations are fragmented (i.e., they’re divided into smaller parts) and
each of the fragments is stored in different sites where they’re required. It must be made sure
that the fragments are such that they can be used to reconstruct the original relation (i.e, there
isn’t any loss of data).
Fragmentation is advantageous as it doesn’t create copies of data, consistency is not a
problem.
Fragmentation of relations can be done in two ways:
- Horizontal fragmentation – Splitting by rows – The relation is fragmented into groups
of tuples so that each tuple is assigned to at least one fragment.
- Vertical fragmentation – Splitting by columns – The schema of the relation is divided
into smaller schemas. Each fragment must contain a common candidate key so as to
ensure a lossless join. In certain cases, an approach that is hybrid of fragmentation
and replication is used.
1. Client-server architecture: This is a common architecture for database systems where clients
(applications or users) make requests to a server that manages the database. The server
processes these requests and returns results to the client. This architecture is scalable and
flexible, allowing multiple clients to connect to the same database and share resources.
2. Three-tier architecture: This architecture adds an intermediate layer between the client and
server, known as the middle-tier or application server. The client sends requests to the
application server, which processes the requests, retrieves data from the database server, and
returns the results to the client. This architecture is useful in distributed environments where the
client and server may be separated by a network.
3. Distributed architecture: In a distributed database system, the database is spread across multiple
machines or locations. This allows for better scalability, fault tolerance, and performance.
However, it also increases complexity and requires careful management of data consistency and
security. Parallel and distributed database systems architecture refers to the use of multiple
processors or machines to manage and process data in a database system. Here are some key
concepts in parallel and distributed database systems architecture:
1. Parallel Database architecture: In a parallel database system, multiple processors are
used to execute queries simultaneously. This architecture can improve the performance
of the database system by allowing multiple queries to be processed in parallel. There
are two types of parallel architecture: shared memory and shared disk. In shared memory
architecture, all processors access the same memory while in shared disk architecture;
each processor has its own memory and accesses data from a shared disk.
Query optimization
Query optimization in distributed database systems architecture is a critical task for improving the
performance and scalability of the database system. It involves making careful trade-offs between
data consistency, network traffic, and query performance. Database designers and administrators
must choose the right techniques and strategies for their specific needs and continually monitor and
optimize the system for optimal performance.
Query optimization is an important aspect of improving the performance of distributed database
systems. Here are some key notes on query optimization in distributed database systems architecture:
1. Fragmentation: Fragmentation is the process of dividing a database into smaller parts or
fragments that are distributed across multiple machines. Fragmentation can help to reduce the
amount of data transferred across the network, but it can also result in increased complexity
and the need for careful management of data consistency.
2. Replication: Replication involves making copies of data and distributing them across
multiple machines. Replication can help to improve the availability and fault tolerance of a
database system, but it can also increase the complexity and the need for careful management
of data consistency.
 3. Partitioning: Partitioning involves dividing the database into smaller subsets of data, which
are stored on different machines. Partitioning can improve the performance of the database
system by allowing queries to be executed on smaller datasets, but it can also increase the
complexity and the need for careful management of data consistency.
4. Data placement: Data placement involves choosing the optimal locations for storing data
within a distributed database system. Data placement can help to reduce network traffic and
improve query performance by placing data closer to where it is needed.
5. Query optimization: Query optimization refers to the process of modifying query execution
plans to improve query performance. Query optimization in distributed database systems
architecture can be complex and involve trade-offs between data consistency and query
performance. Special techniques may be required for query optimization in distributed
systems.
Exercise
1. What is a distributed database system?
a) A database that is shared on a single server
b) A database that is spread across multiple servers
c) A database that is used only by a single application
Answer: b
2. What is the main advantage of using a distributed database system?
a) Centralized control
b) Increased scalability
c) Reduced security risks
Answer: b
3. In a homogenous distributed database system, all databases run on the same:
a) Server
b) Platform
c) Operating System
Answer: b
4. Which of the following is not a benefit of using a homogeneous distributed database system?
a) Easier to manage and maintain
b) Better performance due to less network traffic
c) Stronger security measures
Answer: c
5. In a heterogeneous distributed database system, databases run on different:
a) Servers
b) Platforms
c) Operating Systems
Answer: b
6. What is the main challenge of designing a heterogeneous distributed database system?
a) Handling differences in data organization and storage
b) Maintaining network connectivity
c) Managing distributed transactions
Answer: a
7. What is a common technique for handling differences in data storage when designing a
heterogeneous distributed database system?
a) Data replication
b) Data conversion
c) Data compression
Answer: b
8. In a heterogeneous distributed database system, what is a disadvantage of using data conversion
techniques?
a) Loss of data integrity
b) Increased security risks
c) Slower response times
Answer: a
9. Which of the following is not a key factor that must be considered when designing a distributed
database system?
a) Performance
b) Scalability
c) Security
d) Operating System brand
Answer: d
10. What is an important consideration when choosing a distributed database management system
for a heterogeneous environment?
a) Compatibility with multiple platforms and operating systems
b) Low cost
 c) Native support for specific database applications
Answer: a

Evaluate a set of query processing strategies

Query processing strategies are techniques used by database management systems (DBMS) to
optimize the process of querying data from a database. These strategies involve choosing the most
efficient way of accessing and processing data based on various factors, such as the size of a
database, the types of queries being performed, and the hardware and software resources available.
Some common query processing strategies include:
1. Indexing - A technique used to improve query performance by creating indexes on specific
columns in a database table, allowing the DBMS to quickly locate rows that match a given search
criteria.
2. Query optimization - The process of transforming a user's SQL query into a more efficient form
that retrieves data faster by rearranging the order of operations or using alternative algorithms.
3. Partitioning - Splitting a large database table into smaller partitions based on a specific attribute,
such as date or location, to improve query performance by reducing the amount of data that needs to
be scanned.
4. Materialized views - Precomputing and storing the results of frequently executed queries as virtual
tables, allowing users to query the data without having to recompute it every time.
5. Parallel processing - Distributing the workload across multiple CPUs or servers to increase query
throughput and reduce query response time.

Examination
1. Which of the following is an example of a homogenous distributed database system?
a) A company with multiple branches that all use the same database software.
b) A company with multiple branches that each use a different database software.
c) A company with one main headquarters that uses one database software, and a branch
office that uses different software.
d) None of the above.
(Level: Knowledge)
2. What is the main advantage of designing a distributed database system in a homogenous
environment?
 a) It is easier to maintain and troubleshoot.
b) It allows for greater flexibility and customization.
c) It is more secure than a heterogeneous environment.
d) None of the above.
(Level: Comprehension)
3. Which of the following is an example of a heterogeneous distributed database system?
a) A company with multiple branches that all use the same database software.
b) A company with multiple branches that each use a different database software.
c) A company with one main headquarters that uses one database software, and a branch
office that uses a different software.
d) None of the above.
(Level: Knowledge)
4. What is the main disadvantage of designing a distributed database system in a heterogeneous
environment?
a) It is harder to maintain and troubleshoot.
b) It allows for greater flexibility and customization.
c) It is more secure than a homogenous environment.
d) None of the above.
(Level: Comprehension)
5. Which of the following is not a key requirement for designing a distributed database system?
a) Consistency
b) Scalability
c) Security
d) Compatibility
(Level: Knowledge)
6. What is the main purpose of a distributed database system?
a) To enable data integration across multiple locations and platforms.
b) To improve the performance of a single database system.
c) To reduce the cost of managing multiple database systems.
d) None of the above.
(Level: Comprehension)
7. Which of the following is not a common type of distributed database system?
a) Replicated database system
 b) Partitioned database system
c) Shared-memory database system
d) Hybrid database system
(Level: Knowledge)
8. What is the primary advantage of a replicated database system?
a) It allows for greater scalability.
b) It provides a higher level of data consistency.
c) It is less complex than other types of distributed systems.
d) None of the above.
(Level: Comprehension)
9. What is the primary disadvantage of a partitioned database system?
a) It can be difficult to maintain consistency across all partitions.
b) It provides lower performance compared to other types of distributed systems.
c) It is more complex than other types of distributed systems.
d) None of the above.
(Level: Comprehension)
10. Which of the following is an example of a hybrid distributed database system?
a) A company with multiple branches, where each branch has its own local database, but
there is also a centralized database that all branches can access.
b) A company with multiple branches, where each branch has its own database software, but
there is also a shared cloud database that all branches can access.
c) A company with one main headquarters that uses one database software, and a branch
office that uses a different software, but both databases are connected through a virtual
private network (VPN).
d) None of the above.
(Level: Application)
11. Which of the following architectural systems uses distributed databases that store identical data
across multiple nodes, with each node capable of processing queries? (Remembering)
A) Client-server architecture
B) Peer-to-peer architecture
C) Hybrid architecture
D) Centralized architecture
12. Define homogenous database systems and give two examples. (Understanding)
13. Explain how sharding technique can help improve the performance of a distributed database
system. (Understanding)
14. What are the primary challenges in designing a distributed database system in heterogeneous
environments? (Analyzing)
15. In what ways can you ensure reliability and fault tolerance in distributed database systems?
(Evaluating)
16. Compare and contrast two different types of data architectures used in distributed database
systems. (Evaluating)
17. Based on the load balancing requirements of a distributed database system, which of the
following techniques will you prefer: Round-robin approach or Weighted Random Distribution?
(Analyzing)
18. How does the CAP theorem affect the design of distributed database systems? (Understanding)
19. Create a conceptual diagram of a distributed database system in homogenous environments.
(Creating)
20. Describe the steps involved in recovering data from failed nodes in a distributed database
system. (Analyzing)

1. Apply: A company wants to create a database to store information about their employees,
including their personal details and job information. How would you apply the concept of
normalization to ensure data integrity and reduce redundancy in this database design?
Answer: To apply the concept of normalization, the database should be divided into separate
tables based on the different types of data being stored (such as personal details and job
information). Each table should have a primary key and any repeating data should be moved to a
separate table to avoid redundancy. This will help ensure data integrity and make the database
more efficient.

2. Analyze: A school wants to create a database to store information about their students, including
their grades and attendance records. How would you analyze the requirements for this database
to ensure that it meets the needs of the school and its stakeholders?
Answer: To analyze the requirements for this database, it is important to consider the needs of
the school and its stakeholders, such as teachers, administrators, and parents. This might involve
conducting interviews or surveys to gather feedback on what information is most important to
 them. It is also important to consider any legal or regulatory requirements for storing student
information, such as privacy laws.

3. Apply: A hospital wants to create a database to store patient information, including their medical
history and treatment plans. How would you apply the concept of data modeling to create an
effective database design for this project?
Answer: To apply the concept of data modeling, the database should be designed based on the
relationships between different types of data, such as patients, doctors, and treatments. This
might involve creating entity-relationship diagrams or using other modeling techniques to
visualize these relationships. It is also important to consider any potential issues with data quality
or consistency and how these can be addressed in the design.
1. (Create): Which step is the first in designing a database system for a real-world scenario?
a. Implementing constraints
b. Normalization
c. Identifying data requirements
d. Optimizing performance
Answer: c. Identifying data requirements
2. (Create): What is the purpose of normalization in database design for real-world scenarios?
a. To increase redundancy
b. To improve data consistency
c. To decrease efficiency
d. To simplify data storage
Answer: b. To improve data consistency
3. (Create): How can data integrity be ensured in a database system for a real-world scenario?
a. By implementing constraints
b. By increasing redundancy
c. By decreasing efficiency
d. By simplifying data storage
Answer: a. By implementing constraints
4. (Create): Which technique can be used to optimize performance in a database system for a real-
world scenario?
a. Increasing redundancy
b. Decreasing efficiency
 c. Using indexes
d. Simplifying data storage
Answer: c. Using indexes
5. (Create): What is the role of ER diagrams in designing a database system for a real-world
scenario?
a. To decrease redundancy
b. To simplify data storage
c. To visualize entities and relationships
d. To decrease efficiency
Answer: c. To visualize entities and relationships
6. (Understand) What is the main concept of encapsulation in the object oriented model?
a. The ability to hide implementation details from the user
b. The ability to inherit properties and methods from a parent class
c. The ability to create multiple instances of a class
d. The ability to define abstract classes and interfaces
Answer: a. The ability to hide implementation details from the user
7. (Understand) What is the main concept of inheritance in the object oriented model?
a. The ability to hide implementation details from the user
b. The ability to inherit properties and methods from a parent class
c. The ability to create multiple instances of a class
d. The ability to define abstract classes and interfaces
Answer: b. The ability to inherit properties and methods from a parent class
8. (Understand) What is the main concept of polymorphism in the object oriented model?
a. The ability to hide implementation details from the user
b. The ability to inherit properties and methods from a parent class
c. The ability to create multiple instances of a class
d. The ability to have multiple forms of a method or object
Answer: d. The ability to have multiple forms of a method or object
9. (Understand) What is the main concept of abstraction in the object oriented model?
a. The ability to hide implementation details from the user
b. The ability to inherit properties and methods from a parent class
c. The ability to create multiple instances of a class
d. The ability to define abstract classes and interfaces
 Answer: d. The ability to define abstract classes and interfaces
10. (Understand) What is the main concept of classes and objects in the object oriented model?
a. The ability to hide implementation details from the user
b. The ability to inherit properties and methods from a parent class
c. The ability to create multiple instances of a class
d. The ability to define abstract classes and interfaces
Answer: c. The ability to create multiple instances of a class
11. (Apply) What is the purpose of a checkpoint in database recovery?
a. To save the state of the database before a transaction starts
b. To save the state of the database after a transaction commits
c. To save the state of the database periodically during normal operation
d. To save the state of the database after a system crash
Answer: c. To save the state of the database periodically during normal operation
12. (Apply) What is the role of a transaction log in database recovery?
a. To store a copy of the entire database
b. To store a record of all changes made to the database
c. To store a record of all queries executed on the database
d. To store a record of all users who accessed the database
Answer: b. To store a record of all changes made to the database
13. (Evaluate) Which recovery technique is best suited for a large, high-transaction volume
database?
a. Deferred update
b. Immediate update
c. Shadow paging
d. Checkpointing
Answer: c. Shadow paging
14. (Evaluate) What are the advantages and disadvantages of deferred update recovery technique?
a. Advantages: faster performance, lower overhead; Disadvantages: higher risk of data loss,
longer recovery time
b. Advantages: lower risk of data loss, shorter recovery time; Disadvantages: slower
performance, higher overhead
c. Advantages: simpler implementation, easier to maintain; Disadvantages: limited scalability,
not suitable for high-transaction volume databases
 d. Advantages: better fault tolerance, higher availability; Disadvantages: higher cost, more
complex implementation
Answer: b. Advantages: lower risk of data loss, shorter recovery time; Disadvantages: slower
performance, higher overhead
15. (Evaluate) Which recovery technique is most suitable for a database with a high degree of inter-
transaction dependencies?
a. Deferred update
b. Immediate update
c. Shadow paging
d. Checkpointing
Answer: b. immediate update
16. Which of the following is not one of the principles of database design?
a) Data independence
b) Data redundancy
c) Data normalization
d) Data integrity
Answer: b) Data redundancy
17. Which of the following is an example of a real world database system design scenario?
a) Accounting software for a small business
b) Social media platform for a hobbyist group
c) Inventory tracking system for a personal collection
d) All of the above
Answer: a) Accounting software for a small business
18. When designing a database system for a hotel, which of the following entities would be
considered an attribute rather than an entity?
a) Room
b) Guest
c) Reservation
d) Credit card information
Answer: a) Room
19. Which of the following is not one of the main concepts of the object oriented model?
a) Inheritance
b) Polymorphism
 c) Encapsulation
d) Normalization
Answer: d) Normalization
20. Which recovery method involves periodically making backup copies of the entire database?
a) Transaction logging
b) Rollback
c) Checkpointing
d) Shadowing
Answer: d) Shadowing
21. Which type of distributed database system involves multiple copies of the database stored on
different computers that can communicate with each other?
a) Homogenous
b) Heterogeneous
c) Replicated
d) Fragmented
Answer: c) Replicated
22. Which of the following is not a query processing strategy?
a) Index selection
b) Join ordering
c) Table creation
d) Query optimization
Answer: c) Table creation
23. Which of the following is not a homogenous distributed database system?
a) Client-server
b) Peer-to-peer
c) Two-phase commit
d) Three-phase commit
Answer: b) Peer-to-peer
24. In which type of recovery method is the database rolled back to a previous state and transactions
are re-executed?
a) Checkpointing
b) Shadowing
c) Rollback
 d) Transaction logging
Answer: c) Rollback
25. Which level of normalization involves eliminating repeating groups and creating a separate table
for each set of related attributes?
a. First Normal Form (1NF)
b. Second Normal Form (2NF)
c. Third Normal Form (3NF)
d. Fourth Normal Form (4NF)
Answer: a. First Normal Form (1NF)
26. What is a primary key?
a. A foreign key that references another table
b. A unique identifier that identifies each row in a table
c. A field that stores a calculated value
d. An index on a non-key field
Answer: b. A unique identifier that identifies each row in a table
27. What is denormalization?
a. The process of converting unstructured data into structured data
b. The process of adding redundancy to improve performance
c. The process of breaking down complex data into simpler forms
d. The process of creating database objects such as tables and indexes
Answer: b. The process of adding redundancy to improve performance
28. What is a join?
a. A query that combines two or more tables
b. A field that is common to two or more tables
c. An index on a table
d. A relationship between two tables
Answer: a. A query that combines two or more tables
29. What is a foreign key?
a. A key that uniquely identifies each row in a table
b. A key that references another table's primary key
c. A key that is used to sort the data in a table
d. A key that is used to join two or more tables
Answer: b. A key that references another table's primary key
30. Which of the following is an example of a one-to-many relationship?
a. A customer can have many orders, but an order can only have one customer
b. A customer can have one and only one order, and an order can have one and only one
customer
c. A customer can have many products, and a product can have many customers
d. A customer can have many addresses, and an address can have many customers
Answer: a. A customer can have many orders, but an order can only have one customer
31. What is indexing?
a. The process of organizing data into tables
b. The process of creating relationships between tables
c. The process of adding metadata to a database
d. The process of creating data structures to speed up queries
Answer: d. the process of creating data structures to speed up queries
32. What is a view?
a. A virtual table that is based on the result of a query
b. A physical table that is stored on disk
c. A relationship between two tables
d. An index on a non-key field
Answer: a. A virtual table that is based on the result of a query
33. What is a trigger?
a. A stored procedure that is executed in response to a specific event
b. A constraint that enforces a specific data rule
c. An index on a non-key field
d. A query that joins two or more tables
Answer: a. A stored procedure that is executed in response to a specific event
34. Which of the following is NOT a principle of database design?
A. Atomicity
B. Consistency
C. Integrity
D. Mobility
Answer: D
35. Which of the following is an example of applying database concepts to real world database
design?
 A. Creating an entity-relationship diagram (ERD) for a bookstore
B. Writing a complex SQL query using joins
C. Normalizing a database schema to eliminate redundancy
D. None of the above
Answer: A
36. To design database systems for real world scenarios, you need to:
A. Follow a standard set of rules and procedures
B. Understand the organization's data requirements
C. Use the latest version of database management software
D. All of the above
Answer: B
37. Which of the following is NOT a main concept of the object oriented model?
A. Inheritance
B. Encapsulation
C. Polymorphism
D. Normalization
Answer: D
38. When there is a database failure, which recovery method would you use to restore the database
to the most recent point in time?
A. Full backup
B. Differential backup
C. Incremental backup
D. Point-in-time recovery
Answer: D
39. To design a distributed database system in homogenous and heterogeneous environments, you
need to:
A. Ensure that all databases use the same data model
B. Choose a middleware software that supports all database types
C. Use a distributed transaction processing system
D. All of the above
Answer: C
40. Which query processing strategy would you use if you want to retrieve records from a large table
quickly?
 A. Index scan
B. Table scan
C. Hash join
D. Merge join
Answer: A
41. Which of the following is an example of understanding the principles of database design?
A. Identifying candidate keys in a table
B. Writing SQL queries to retrieve data from multiple tables
C. Backing up a database regularly
D. None of the above
Answer: A
42. Which of the following is an example of using different recovery methods when there is a
database failure?
A. Restoring a database from a full backup
B. Restoring a database from a differential backup
C. Using log shipping to replicate a database to a standby server
D. All of the above
Answer: D
43. Which of the following is an example of designing a distributed database system in a
homogenous environment?
A. Using Oracle Real Application Clusters to create a highly available database
B. Replicating a MySQL database to a backup server
C. Using Microsoft SQL Server to create a clustered database
D. None of the above
Answer: A
44. Which of the following is not a query processing strategy?
A) Hash-based join
B) Indexed nested-loop join
C) Data warehousing
D) Sort-merge join
Answer: C) Data warehousing (Knowledge level question)
45. Which of the following is a disadvantage of nested-loop join?
A) It requires less memory to process queries
 B) It has a lower time complexity compared to other strategies
C) It can only handle small data sets
D) It does not work with non-equijoins
Answer: C) It can only handle small data sets (Comprehension level question)
46. Which of the following join strategies is most commonly used in distributed databases?
A) Sort-merge join
B) Hash-based join
C) Indexed nested-loop join
D) Parallel join
Answer: B) Hash-based join (Application level question)
47. When would you use a merge-join instead of a hash-join?
A) When the query involves a large number of join keys
B) When the data to be joined is not uniformly distributed
C) When one of the tables is much smaller than the other
D) When the data is already sorted on the join keys
Answer: D) When the data is already sorted on the join keys (Analysis level question)
48. Which join strategy is best suited for finding matches between two large, unsorted datasets?
A) Sort-merge join
B) Hash-based join
C) Indexed nested-loop join
D) Natural join
Answer: A) Sort-merge join (Evaluation level question)
49. What is the main advantage of using an index in query processing?
A) It reduces disk I/O operations
B) It speeds up the query execution time
C) It eliminates the need for join strategies
D) It ensures that the query is executed correctly
Answer: B) It speeds up the query execution time (Comprehension level question)
50. Which of the following statements is true about parallel processing in query evaluation?
A) It is only useful for small datasets
B) It can significantly increase the speed of query execution
C) It requires more disk space than other strategies
D) It is not compatible with distributed databases
 Answer: B) It can significantly increase the speed of query execution (Comprehension level
question)
51. When evaluating query processing strategies, what is meant by "cost-based optimization"?
A) Minimizing the financial cost of query processing
B) Maximizing the number of queries processed per second
C) Selecting the processing strategy with the lowest estimated cost
D) Determining the optimal size of the database for query processing
Answer: C) Selecting the processing strategy with the lowest estimated cost (Analysis level
question)
52. Which join strategy would be best suited for a query involving a large table and a small table?
A) Sort-merge join
B) Hash-based join
C) Indexed nested-loop join
D) Natural join
Answer: C) Indexed nested-loop join (Application level question)
53. What is the main disadvantage of using a cartesian product join in query processing?
A) It cannot handle non-equijoins
B) It is computationally expensive for large datasets
C) It requires that both tables be in the same format
D) It can produce incorrect results if not used correctly
Answer: B) It is computationally expensive for large datasets (Comprehension level
question)
54. Which of the following query processing strategies provides the fastest response time?
a) Index-based query processing
b) In-memory query processing
c) Sequential scan query processing
d) Query parallelization
55. Suppose you have multiple query processing strategies to choose from for a specific database.
Which of the following factors is NOT important when evaluating these strategies?
a) Resource utilization
b) Query complexity
c) Query cost
d) Operator precedence
56. Which of the following query processing strategies would be appropriate for a database with
limited main memory resources?
a) In-memory query processing
b) Hybrid query processing
c) Query parallelization
d) Sequential scan query processing
57. Which of the following query processing strategies should be used for a highly selective query
on a large database table?
a) Index-based query processing
b) In-memory query processing
c) Sequential scan query processing
d) Query parallelization
58. What is the potential drawback of using index-based query processing?
a) Slow query response time
b) High query execution cost
c) Limited scalability
d) High resource utilization
59. How does in-memory query processing compare to traditional disk-based query processing in
terms of performance?
a) Slower than traditional disk-based query processing
b) About the same as traditional disk-based query processing
c) Faster than traditional disk-based query processing
d) The performance depends on the size of the database
60. Which of the following factors should be considered when deciding on a threshold for query
selectivity?
a) Available disk space
b) Query execution time
c) Query cost
d) Resource utilization
61. What advantages does hybrid query processing offer over other query processing strategies?
a) Faster response times than index-based query processing
b) Lower resource usage than in-memory query processing
c) Reduced disk space requirements compared to sequential scan query processing
 d) Improved performance over all other query processing strategies
62. Which of the following statements best describes an object-oriented database?
A) It is a database management system that uses SQL to manipulate data
B) It stores data in tables that can be easily linked together
C) It stores data in objects that can have properties, methods, and relationships
D) It is a database management system that focuses on performance optimization
63. What is encapsulation in an object-oriented database?
A) It is a mechanism that allows objects to represent real-world entities
B) It is a principle that states each object should only have one responsibility
C) It is a technique that hides the implementation details of an object from outside access
D) It is a process of defining a formal structure for storing and organizing data in a database
64. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of an object-oriented database?
A) Storage of complex objects
B) Support for integrity constraints
C) Use of a query language to retrieve data
D) Support for inheritance among objects
65. In object-oriented databases, what is the purpose of an object identifier?
A) It uniquely identifies an object in the database
B) It defines the set of attributes and methods associated with an object
C) It provides an efficient method for searching and retrieving objects
D) It establishes a relationship between two or more objects in the database
66. What is the difference between a class and an object in object-oriented databases?
A) A class is a definition of an object, while an object is an instance of a class
B) A class represents data, while an object represents behavior
C) A class is an abstract concept, while an object is a concrete instance of that concept
D) A class is defined by its methods, while an object is defined by its properties
67. Which of the following is an advantage of using an object-oriented database?
A) Improved performance due to query optimization
B) Reduced development time and cost
C) Supports complex data structures and relationships
D) Provides a standard method for creating and managing tables and columns
68. What is the purpose of inheritance in object-oriented databases?
A) To prevent unauthorized access to data
 B) To provide a mechanism for object reuse and extendibility
C) To improve database security by encrypting data
D) To ensure data integrity through referential constraints
69. Which of the following is NOT a type of relationship that can be modeled in an object-oriented
database?
A) One to one
B) One to many
C) Many to many
D) Single inheritance
70. What is the role of the data dictionary in an object-oriented database?
A) It provides a way to maintain data consistency and integrity
B) It defines the structure and organization of data in the database
C) It stores metadata about objects and their relationships
D) It indexes data for faster searching and retrieval
71. Which of the following is a key principle of database design?
a. Availability
b. Anonymity
c. Consistency
d. Applicability
(Answer: c)
72. In real world database design, which of the following is an example of applying normalization?
a. Combining multiple primary keys into a single composite key.
b. Adding duplicate data to multiple tables for faster access.
c. Creating a single table for all data, regardless of type or relationship.
d. Using non-standard data formats to improve performance.
(Answer: a)
73. Which of the following is a key factor to consider when designing a database system for a large
corporation?
a. Simplicity
b. Scalability
c. Low cost
d. High security
(Answer: b)
74. Which of the following concepts is central to the object oriented model of database design?
a. Modularity
b. Normalization
c. Entity-relationship modeling
d. Inheritance
(Answer: d)
75. Which of the following methods can be used to recover from a database failure?
a. Backup and restore
b. Ignore the problem and hope it goes away
c. Rewrite the entire database from scratch
d. Switch to a new database management system
(Answer: a)
76. Which of the following is true about designing distributed database systems?
a. Homogenous environments are generally simpler to deal with than heterogeneous ones.
b. Heterogeneous environments will typically require the use of custom interfaces between
systems.
c. Designing a distributed database system is fundamentally different from designing a
centralized one.
d. A distributed system will typically perform better than a centralized system in all cases.
(Answer: b)
77. Which of the following is an important consideration when evaluating query processing
strategies?
a. The size of the database being queried
b. The number of users accessing the database at once
c. The complexity of the queries being processed
d. The popularity of the data being queried
(Answer: c)
78. Which of the following is an appropriate description of SQL?
a) A high-level programming language used for creating complex software.
b) A database management system used to retrieve, store and manipulate data.
c) An operating system used to manage servers and other computing devices.
d) A markup language used to encode documents.
Answer: b (Remembering)
79. Which of the following SQL statements is used to select all columns and records from a table
named "Employees"?
a) SELECT
b) SELECT ALL FROM Employees
c) SELECT Employees.
d) SELECT Fields FROM Employees
Answer: a (Remembering)
80. Which of the following options best describes what a "WHERE" clause does in an SQL
statement?
a) It specifies the tables involved in the query.
b) It specifies the columns to be included in the query results.
c) It filters the records returned by the query based on specified criteria.
d) It specifies the order in which records should be sorted.
Answer: c (Understanding)
81. Which of the following SQL keywords is used to sort records in ascending order?
a) MIN
b) MAX
c) ORDER BY
d) ASC
Answer: d (Remembering)
82. What type of SQL statement is used to add new records to a table?
a) UPDATE
b) DELETE
c) INSERT
d) SELECT
Answer: c (Remembering)
83. Which of the following SQL clauses is used to group records based on a particular column
value?
a) GROUP BY
b) HAVING
c) JOIN
d) UNION
Answer: a (Understanding)
84. What is the output of the following SQL statement?
SELECT COUNT() FROM Customers;
a) The total number of customers in the Customers table.
b) The highest value in the Customers table.
c) The lowest value in the Customers table.
d) The average value in the Customers table.
Answer: a (Understanding)
85. Which JOIN operator returns all records from both tables, even if there are no matches in the
other table?
a) INNER JOIN
b) LEFT JOIN
c) RIGHT JOIN
d) OUTER JOIN
Answer: d (Understanding)
86. What is the purpose of the "LIKE" operator in SQL?
a) It is used to substitute values in the query.
b) It is used to join two tables on a common column.
c) It is used to filter records based on a pattern match.
d) It is used to calculate a mathematical expression.
Answer: c (Understanding)
87. In SQL, what is the function of the DISTINCT keyword?
a) It combines data from multiple tables.
b) It removes duplicate records from the query results.
c) It sorts the query results in ascending or descending order.
d) It calculates a sum, average, or other similar calculation.
Answer: b (Understanding)
88. Which of the following describes the concept of database system architecture?
a) A set of rules that governs how data can be stored in a database
b) The physical layout of the different elements that make up a database system
c) The process of analyzing and transforming queries to improve their performance
d) The study of how to use multiple computers to store and process large amounts of data
Answer: b) The physical layout of the different elements that make up a database system
89. What is query optimization?
 a) The process of translating a query written in one programming language into another
b) The process of rewriting a query to make it more efficient and faster
c) The process of validating and verifying a query to ensure its correctness
d) The process of executing a query to retrieve the specified data from a database
Answer: b) The process of rewriting a query to make it more efficient and faster
90. Which of the following describes a parallel database system?
a) A database system that uses multiple computers to store and process data in parallel
b) A database system that uses multiple databases to store different types of data
c) A database system that is optimized to handle queries that involve joins
d) A database system that allows users to access and modify data simultaneously without
conflicts
Answer: a) A database system that uses multiple computers to store and process data in parallel
91. Which of the following is a benefit of a distributed database system?
a) Lower hardware and software costs for individual computers
b) Higher security and privacy for sensitive data
c) Faster processing of queries due to parallelism
d) Easier management and administration of the entire system
Answer: c) Faster processing of queries due to parallelism
92. What is a database management system (DBMS)?
a) A software application that is used to store and manage data in a database
b) A hardware device that is used to store and retrieve data from a database
c) A set of guidelines that is used to ensure the accuracy and consistency of data in a database
d) A discipline that studies how to design and develop databases for various applications
Answer: a) A software application that is used to store and manage data in a database
93. Which of the following describes the concept of data independence in a database?
a) The ability to access data from a database without knowledge of its physical storage or
structure
b) The ability to modify data in a database without affecting other parts of the system
c) The ability to create custom views of data in a database that are independent of the original
tables
d) The ability to change the logical structure of a database without affecting the physical storage
Answer: a) The ability to access data from a database without knowledge of its physical storage
or structure
94. What is a relational database management system (RDBMS)?
a) A type of DBMS that uses a graph-based model to store and manage data
b) A type of DBMS that uses a hierarchical model to store and manage data
c) A type of DBMS that uses a tabular model to store and manage data
d) A type of DBMS that uses a network-based model to store and manage data
Answer: c) A type of DBMS that uses a tabular model to store and manage data
95. Which of the following describes a data warehouse?
a) A database system that is optimized for transaction processing and low-latency queries
b) A repository of historical data that is used for analysis and decision-making
c) A database system that uses advanced indexing techniques to speed up queries
d) A centralized database system that is used across multiple organizations
Answer: b) A repository of historical data that is used for analysis and decision-making
96. What is a schema in a database?
a) A collection of data that represents a particular aspect of an organization
b) A set of guidelines and protocols for accessing and manipulating data in a database
c) A blueprint or plan that defines the structure of a database
d) A set of rules and regulations that govern how data can be stored and accessed in a database
Answer: c) A blueprint or plan that defines the structure of a database
97. What is a Database Management System?
A) A software system for organizing and managing data
B) A hardware system for storing data
C) A system for backing up data
D) None of the above
Answer: A)
98. Which of the following is not a type of data model?
A) Hierarchical
B) Relational
C) Object-Oriented
D) Logical
Answer: D)
99. A transaction is what type of operation?
A) An action that modifies or accesses data in a database
B) A method for ordering food at a restaurant
 C) A type of storage device
D) None of the above
Answer: A)
100. Which of the following is not a key feature of a DBMS?
A) Ability to store and retrieve data
B) Security and access control
C) Graphical User Interface (GUI)
D) None of the above
Answer: C)
101. What is referential integrity in a relational database?
a) A constraint that ensures all values in a column are non-null
b) A constraint that ensures all values in a column are unique
c) A constraint that ensures all foreign keys has a corresponding primary key in another table
d) A constraint that ensures all values in a column meet a certain condition
Answer: c) A constraint that ensures all foreign keys have a corresponding primary key in
another table.
102. Which of the following describes a one-to-many relationship in a relational database?
a) One row in one table corresponds to one row in another table
b) One row in one table corresponds to many rows in another table
c) Many rows in one table correspond to many rows in another table
d) Many rows in one table correspond to one row in another table
Answer: b) One row in one table corresponds to many rows in another table.
103. What is normalization in the context of relational database design?
a) The process of ensuring that all values in a column are unique
b) The process of breaking down a table into smaller, more manageable tables
c) The process of ensuring that all values in a column meet a certain condition
d) The process of adding columns to a table to improve performance
Answer: b) The process of breaking down a table into smaller, more manageable tables.
104. Which of the following describes a many-to-many relationship in a relational database?
a) One row in one table corresponds to many rows in another table
b) Many rows in one table correspond to one row in another table
c) Many rows in one table correspond to many rows in another table
d) One row in one table corresponds to one row in another table
 Answer: c) Many rows in one table correspond to many rows in another table.
105. Which of the following SQL commands is used to create a new table?
a) SELECT
b) DELETE
c) CREATE
d) UPDATE
Answer: c) CREATE. Bloom's Taxonomy level: Remembering.
106. What is a foreign key in a relational database?
a) A column that contains unique identifiers for each row in a table
b) A column that references a primary key in another table
c) A column that contains calculated values based on other columns
d) A column that is used to group rows together based on a certain criteria
Answer: b) A column that references a primary key in another table.
107. Which of the following is an example of a database constraint?
a) NOT NULL
b) GROUP BY
c) ORDER BY
d) LIKE
Answer: a) NOT NULL.
108. What is a primary key in a relational database?
a) A column that contains calculated values based on other columns
b) A column that is used to group rows together based on a certain criteria
c) A column that references a foreign key in another table
d) A unique identifier for a row in a table
Answer: d) A unique identifier for a row in a table.
109. Which of the following SQL commands is used to update data in a table?
a) SELECT
b) DELETE
c) CREATE
d) UPDATE
Answer: d) UPDATE.
SQL example:
Here are 10 complex SQL queries that involve multiple tables and/or subqueries:
1. Find the top 5 customers who have spent the most money on products in a specific category:
SELECT c.customer_name, SUM(o.quantity * p.price) AS total_spent
FROM orders o JOIN customers c ON o.customer_id = c.customer_id
JOIN products p ON o.product_id = p.product_id
WHERE p.category = 'CategoryName'
GROUP BY c.customer_name
ORDER BY total_spent DESC
LIMIT 5;

2. Find all employees who have not made any sales in the past month:

SELECT e.employee_name
FROM employees e
LEFT JOIN orders o ON e.employee_id = o.employee_id
WHERE o.order_date < DATE_SUB(NOW(), INTERVAL 1 MONTH) OR o.order_date IS NULL;

3. Find the average rating for each book in a table of books with ratings from multiple reviewers:

SELECT b.book_title, AVG(r.rating) AS avg_rating

FROM books b
JOIN reviews r ON b.book_id = r.book_id
GROUP BY b.book_title;

4. Find the names of all employees who have worked on a project with a budget greater than
$100,000:
SELECT DISTINCT e.employee_name
FROM employees e
JOIN project_employee pe ON e.employee_id = pe.employee_id
JOIN projects p ON pe.project_id = p.project_id
WHERE p.budget > 100000;
5. Find the most recent order for each customer in a table of customer orders:
SELECT c.customer_name, MAX(o.order_date) AS most_recent_order
FROM customers c
JOIN orders o ON c.customer_id = o.customer_id
GROUP BY c.customer_id;
6. Find the number of customers who have made more than one purchase in a table of customer
orders:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT c.customer_id) AS repeat_customers
FROM customers c JOIN orders o ON c.customer_id = o.customer_id
GROUP BY c.customer_id
HAVING COUNT(o.order_id) > 1;
7. Find the names of all employees who have never worked on a project with a specific client:

SELECT e.employee_name
FROM employees e
LEFT JOIN project_employee pe ON e.employee_id = pe.employee_id
LEFT JOIN projects p ON pe.project_id = p.project_id
WHERE p.client_name <> 'ClientName' OR p.client_name IS NULL;

8. Find the total revenue generated by each product in a table of orders:

SELECT p.product_name, SUM(o.quantity * o.price) AS total_revenue

FROM products p
JOIN orders o ON p.product_id = o.product_id
GROUP BY p.product_id;

9. Find the average number of orders per customer for each month in a table of customer orders:

SELECT DATE_FORMAT(o.order_date, '%Y-%m') AS order_month, AVG(orders_per_customer)

AS avg_orders_per_customer
FROM (
SELECT c.customer_id, DATE_FORMAT(o.order_date, '%Y-%m') AS order_month,
COUNT(o.order_id) AS orders_per_customer
FROM customers c
JOIN orders o ON c.customer_id = o.customer_id
GROUP BY c.customer_id, DATE_FORMAT(o.order_date, '%Y-%m')
) AS subquery
GROUP BY order_month;
10. Find the names of all customers who have purchased every product in a specific category:
SELECT c.customer_name
FROM customers c
JOIN orders o ON c.customer_id = o.customer_id
WHERE NOT EXISTS (
SELECT p.product_id
FROM products p
WHERE p.category = 'CategoryName'
AND NOT EXISTS (
SELECT 1 FROM orders o2
WHERE o2.product_id = p.product_id
AND o2.customer_id = c.customer_id
)
);