Isotopes

What is an Isotope?

Let’s start with atoms. Every atom is made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons
determine what element it is. For example, if an atom has 6 protons, it's carbon.

But atoms of the same element can have di erent numbers of neutrons. These are called
isotopes.

In Simple Terms:

Imagine three siblings with the same face (protons) but di erent weights (neutrons). They are still
part of the same family (element) but are slightly di erent.

Scientific Definition:

Isotopes are atoms of the same element (same number of protons) that have di erent numbers
of neutrons.

Mass Number:

Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons.

So, isotopes have:

 Same atomic number (Z)

 Di erent mass number (A)

Example:

 Carbon-12: 6 protons + 6 neutrons

 Carbon-14: 6 protons + 8 neutrons

Written as:

 𝐶

 𝐶
Why Important?

 Some isotopes are stable (don’t change over time)

 Some are radioactive (they break down and release energy)

Uses:

 Carbon-14: Used to date ancient fossils (radiocarbon dating)

 Iodine-131: Used in medicine to treat thyroid conditions

Electron Configuration

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What is Electron Configuration?

Every atom has electrons that move around the nucleus. These electrons are not just flying
around randomly — they follow specific rules and patterns. The way they are arranged is called
electron configuration.

Think of it like a Hotel:

 The atom has energy levels (like floors of the hotel)

 Each floor has rooms (called orbitals)

 Each room can take 2 guests (electrons)

Types of Subshells (rooms):

Subshell Orbitals (rooms) Max Electrons

s 1 2

p 3 6

d 5 10

f 7 14

Rules for Filling:

1. Aufbau Principle – Electrons fill the lowest energy level first.

2. Pauli Exclusion Principle – Only two electrons per orbital, and they must spin in opposite
directions.

3. Hund’s Rule – Electrons fill empty orbitals before pairing up.

Example:

Magnesium (Mg), Z = 12

 Configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s²

Visual (Box Diagram):

1s ⬆⬇ 2s ⬆⬇ 2p ⬆⬆⬆⬇⬇⬇ 3s ⬆⬇

Each arrow represents an electron. Up/down arrows = opposite spins.

Ionisation Energy

What is Ionisation Energy?

Ionisation energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from an atom in the gas phase.

Imagine holding a balloon tied to your wrist (the electron). To let it go, you need to untie it and
push it away (use energy). That energy is ionisation energy.

Chemical Definition:

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 𝑿(𝒈) → 𝑿(𝒈) + 𝒆

This means: a neutral atom in the gas state becomes a positive ion by losing one electron.

First Ionisation Energy:

 Energy needed to remove the first outer electron

What A ects Ionisation Energy?

 Atomic size: Larger atoms = lower ionisation energy (easier to remove electron)

 Nuclear charge: More protons = stronger pull on electrons = higher ionisation energy

 Shielding: Inner electrons block the pull of the nucleus = lower ionisation energy

Trends:

 Across a period: Increases → smaller size, more protons

 Down a group: Decreases ↓ more shells = less attraction

Examples:

 Low: Sodium (Na) – easy to lose its one outer electron

 High: Neon (Ne) – tightly holds its electrons

Electronegativity

What is Electronegativity?

Electronegativity is how badly an atom wants to attract shared electrons when it's in a bond.

Imagine two kids sharing a toy (electrons). The one who always pulls the toy towards them is more
electronegative.

Developed by Linus Pauling:

He created a scale from 0 to 4.0:

 Fluorine (F): 4.0 (most greedy)

 Cesium (Cs): ~0.7 (least greedy)

Trends:

 Across a period: Increases → atoms have more protons and smaller size

 Down a group: Decreases → atoms are larger, outer electrons are far from the nucleus

Bond Types by Di erence in Electronegativity:

DIFFERENCE BOND TYPE

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Examples:

 H–F bond: Highly polar because fluorine pulls more

 Na–Cl: Ionic bond due to large di erence in electronegativity

Electron A inity

What is Electron A inity?

This is the energy change when an atom gains an electron. It tells us how much an atom wants
an extra electron.

Imagine you're giving a gift (electron) to someone. Some people accept it happily (release energy),
others reject it (require energy).

Reaction:

𝑿(𝒈) → 𝑿(𝒈) + 𝒆

 If energy is released → electron a inity is negative (favorable)

 If energy is absorbed → electron a inity is positive (unfavorable)

Trends:

 Across a period: More negative → atoms want electrons

 Down a group: Less negative → larger atoms don’t attract electrons as much

Examples:

 Chlorine: High electron a inity (wants an extra electron)

 Noble gases: Positive (they don’t want more electrons)

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 Practice Questions

Isotopes

1. Define the term "isotope".

2. How do isotopes of the same element di er?

3. Give two examples of isotopes and write their symbols.

4. What remains the same in all isotopes of an element?

5. Why do isotopes have similar chemical properties?

6. How is carbon-14 used in archaeology?

7. Write the nuclear symbol for an isotope of oxygen with 8 protons and 10 neutrons.

8. Why do isotopes have di erent mass numbers?

9. What is the di erence between atomic number and mass number?

10. Which particles are responsible for the mass of an atom?

11. What is the atomic number of carbon-14?

12. Which part of the atom is most involved in chemical bonding?

Electron Configuration

1. What is meant by electron configuration?

2. State the maximum number of electrons in a p orbital.

3. Write the electron configuration of nitrogen (Z = 7).

4. How many electrons can a d subshell hold?

5. What is the electron configuration of carbon (Z = 6)?

6. Draw the orbital diagram for oxygen (Z = 8).

7. What does Hund’s Rule state?

8. According to the Aufbau principle, which orbitals are filled first?

9. Write the full electron configuration of sodium (Z = 11).

10. What is the electron configuration of fluorine?

11. Why do electrons pair with opposite spins in an orbital?

12. Which element has the configuration 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹?

13. How many electrons are in the outer shell of neon (Z = 10)?

14. What is the highest occupied energy level in calcium?

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 15. Which rule explains why electrons fill orbitals singly first?

16. How many unpaired electrons does nitrogen have?

17. What is the electron configuration of a potassium ion (K⁺)?

18. Which subshell is filled after 3p?

19. What is the configuration of an oxygen ion (O²⁻)?

20. Draw the orbital box diagram for beryllium.

Ionisation Energy

1. What is ionisation energy?

2. What happens to an atom when it is ionised?

3. Write the equation for the first ionisation of sodium.

4. What is meant by the term "first ionisation energy"?

5. Why is ionisation energy always positive?

6. Why does helium have a high ionisation energy?

7. How does atomic radius a ect ionisation energy?

8. Why does ionisation energy increase across a period?

9. Why does ionisation energy decrease down a group?

10. What is the ionisation energy trend in group 1 elements?

11. Write the second ionisation equation for Mg.

12. Why is the second ionisation energy always higher?

13. What is the unit of ionisation energy?

14. How does nuclear charge a ect ionisation energy?

Electronegativity

1. Define electronegativity.

2. Who developed the electronegativity scale?

3. What is the electronegativity of fluorine?

4. Which element has the lowest electronegativity?

5. Why does electronegativity increase across a period?

6. Why does it decrease down a group?

7. How does atomic radius a ect electronegativity?

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 8. Which is more electronegative: O or S?

9. Which type of elements have high electronegativity?

10. What kind of bond forms between atoms with large di erences in electronegativity?

11. What is the electronegativity di erence in a polar covalent bond?

12. Which bond is more polar: H-F or H-Cl?

13. Compare electronegativity of metals and non-metals.

14. What type of bond forms if the electronegativity di erence is 0?

15. Rank F, Cl, and Br in order of increasing electronegativity.

16. What is the bond type in NaCl based on electronegativity?

17. What is the bond type between C and H?

18. Which group of elements tends to form ionic bonds?

19. Why do noble gases have no electronegativity value?

Electron A inity

1. What is meant by electron a inity?

2. Is electron a inity usually negative or positive? Why?

3. Which element has the most negative electron a inity?

4. Why do noble gases have positive electron a inity?

5. Why is the electron a inity of fluorine high?

6. How does atomic size a ect electron a inity?

7. Which has a more negative electron a inity: Cl or Br?

8. What happens to energy when an electron is added to oxygen?

9. What is the general trend of electron a inity down a group?

10. What is the di erence between ionisation energy and electron a inity?

11. Which group has the highest electron a inity?

12. Which group has the lowest electron a inity?

13. Write a chemical equation showing electron a inity of Cl.

14. What is meant by energy release in electron a inity?

15. Why do metals have low electron a inity?

16. What is the unit of electron a inity?