UNIT 4

EV motors and controllers

ELECTRIC MACHINE

Electric machine is another core component in PHEVs. They serve as the primary movers in
PHEVs to output speed and torque to the output shafts that are connected with vehicle wheels.
Regenerative braking is also achieved by running the electric machine in generating modes so
that the kinetic energy is retrieved from the electric machine into batteries. Meanwhile,
because the electric machine is the only power source to propel the vehicle in all-electric
driving mode, a higher power rating is required for the electric machine so that it can meet the
required speed and torque.
It is common in PHEVs that a second electric machine is utilized to serve as a generator and
engine starter. The secondary electric machine can also operate as in the motoring mode to
assist with the vehicle performance such that both the electric machines operate in the
motoring mode that maximum power and torque are generated. In the operations of none all-
electric driving mode, the secondary generator helps to charge the battery so that the battery
state of charge (SOC) remains above the threshold level and the vehicle can operate under
hybrid electric mode, thus significantly increasing the driving range of PHEVs.

Controllers

Power electronics in PHEVs include inverters, DC–DC converters, chargers, and BMS, which
alsotypically come along with battery systems. Inverters serve to transform the DC power
from the bat- teries into AC power to propel the electric machines. It is also necessary to
retrieve the regenerative energy from the electric machines back into the battery pack by using
the motor drive components Besides, an inverter and associated controller are typically needed
for the onboard air conditioners that use AC machines.

Multiple DC–DC converters are used to step up and step down the voltages at different levels
to suit for various applications. A boost converter is used to increase the DC bus voltage up to
a high level from the voltage of the battery pack, which is desired for the electric machines so
that the constant torque region is extended and higher power and higher speed can be
outputted at the rated operation point. This DC–DC converter should also be capable of
bidirectional power transfer so that the power retrieved from the electric machines by
Page 1 of 25
regenerative braking can be transferred backinto the battery. Multiple DC–DC converters are
also needed to adjust the battery voltage to differ- ent low- voltage levels. For instance, a DC–
DC converter is used to supply the power for the 12-V accessory loads and charge the 12-V
low-voltage battery, while another DC–DC converter may be used to step down the battery
voltage to a higher level to operate the high- power applications such as power- steering
systems and compressing pumps.

AC–DC converters are needed in battery chargers to convert the AC power from the grid into
DC power to charge the battery. Power factor correction and programmable digital controllers
with proper voltage–current profiles are needed for high-energy battery packs. Proprietary
BMS are used to actively monitor the battery SOC and state of health (SOH). The power and
state of each individual battery cell is also regulated and balanced by the BMS system. A good
thermal performance is also ensured by properly adjusting the temperature on the battery cells,
as well as controlling the flow rate of intake and outtake coolant.

A. Battery (auxiliary): In an electric drive vehicle, the low-voltage auxiliary battery

provides electricity to start the car before the traction battery is engaged; it also powers
vehicle accessories.
B. Charge port: The charge port allows the vehicle to connect to an external power
supply in order to charge the traction battery pack.
C. DC/DC converter: This device converts higher-voltage DC power from the traction
battery pack to the lower-voltage DC power needed to run vehicle accessories and
recharge the auxiliary battery.
D. Electric generator: Generates electricity from the rotating wheels while braking,
transferring that energy back to the traction battery pack. Some vehicles use motor
generators that perform both the drive and regeneration functions.
E. Electric traction motor: Using power from the traction battery pack, this motor
drives the vehicle's wheels. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform both the
drive and regeneration functions.
F. Exhaust system: The exhaust system channels the exhaust gases from the engine out
through the tailpipe. A three-way catalyst is designed to reduce engine-out emissions
within the exhaust system.
G. Fuel filler: A nozzle from a fuel dispenser attaches to the receptacle on the vehicle to
fill the tank. Fuel tank (gasoline): This tank stores gasoline on board the vehicle until
it's needed by the engine.
H. Internal combustion engine (spark-ignited): In this configuration, fuel is injected
Page 2 of 25
 into either theintake manifold or the combustion chamber, where it is combined with
air, and the air/fuel mixture isignited by the spark from a spark plug.
I. Onboard charger: Takes the incoming AC electricity supplied via the charge port and
converts it to DC power for charging the traction battery. It also communicates with
the charging equipment and monitors battery characteristics such as voltage, current,
temperature, and state of charge while charging the pack.
J. Power electronics controller: This unit manages the flow of electrical energy
delivered by the traction battery, controlling the speed of the electric traction motor
and the torque it produces.
K. Thermal system (cooling): This system maintains a proper operating temperature
range of the engine, electric motor, power electronics, and other components.
L. Traction battery pack: Stores electricity for use by the electric traction motor.
M. Transmission: The transmission transfers mechanical power from the engine and/or
electric traction motor to drive the wheels.

Drive train Configuration

An automotive drive train is shown in Figure 1. It consists of:
 a power plant
 a clutch in a manual transmission or a torque converter in automatic transmission
 a gear box
 final drive
 differential shaft
 driven wheels
The torque and rotating speed from the output shaft of the power plant are transmitted to the
driven wheels through the clutch or torque converter, gearbox, final drive, differential and
drive shaft.
The clutch is used in manual transmission to couple or decouple the gearbox to the
power plant. The torque converter in an automatic transmission is hydrodynamic device,
functioning as the clutch in manual transmission with a continuously variable gear ratio.
The gearbox supplies a few gear ratios from its input shaft to its output shaft for the
power plant torque-speed profile to match the requirements of the load. The final drive is
usually a pair of gears that supply a further speed reduction and distribute the torque to each
wheel through the differential.

Page 3 of 25
 Clutch

Driven wheel

1 3 5
Vehicle Differential Drive Shaft
Power Plant
2 4 R

Driven wheel
Transmission

Figure 1: An automobile power train

Vehicle power plant

There are two limiting factors to the maximum tractive effort of the vehicle:
 Maximum tractive effort that the tire-ground contact can support
 Tractive effort that the maximum torque of the power plant can produce with the given
driveline gear ratios.
The smaller of these factors will determine the performance potential of the vehicle. Usually it
is the second factor that limits the vehicles performance.
The classification of various types of power plants used in a vehicle is shown in Figure 2.

Prime Mover

Internal Combustion Engine

Hybrid Drives Electric Motors
(ICE)

AC Motors
Continuous
Single Ignition Combustion
DC Motors

Spark ignition
Gas turbine
engine

Diesel engine

Figure 2: Classification of vehicle power plat

Page 4 of 25
 In selecting a suitable power plant, the following factors are considered:
 Operating performance
 Economy
 Environment friendliness
For vehicular applications, the ideal performance characteristic of a power plant is constant
power output over the full speed range. Consequently, the torque varies hyperbolically with
respect to speed as shown in Figure 3. This ideal performance characteristic of the power
plant will ensure that the maximum power is available at any vehicle speed, thus resulting in
optimal vehicle performance. In practice however, the torque is constrained to be constant a
low speeds. This is done so as not to be over the maxima limited by the adhesion between the
tyre-ground contact areas. The internal combustion (IC) engines are the most commonly
used power plants for the land vehicles. In hybrid and electric vehicle technology, the electric
motor is used.

Torque

Power
Power

Speed

Figure 3: Ideal performance characteristics for a vehicle power plant

Internal combustion engine

The internal combustion engines used in the vehicles are based on two principles:
 spark ignition (petrol engines) principle
 Diesel principle.
The key features of the ICs based spark ignition principle are:
 high power/weight ratio
 good performance
 low combustion noise.

Page 5 of 25
 The disadvantages of are the ICs based spark ignition principle are:
 quality of fuel required
 higher fuel consumption.
The advantages of the diesel engines are:
 low fuel consumption
 low maintenance requirement due to absence of ignition system
 low fuel quality required
The disadvantages of the diesel engine are
 high level of particulate emission
 greater weight and higher price
 higher levels of noise
The two typical characteristic curves used to describe the engine characteristic are:
 torque vs. engine speed curve at full load (100% acceleration pedal position)
 power vs. engine speed curve at full load (100% acceleration pedal position)
These two characteristic curves are shown in Figure 4. In Figure 4 the following
nomenclature is used:
Pmax  Pn  Maximum engine power = Nominal power
P(Tmax )  Engine power at maximum torque
Tmax  Maximum engine torque
T (Pmax )  Tn  Engine at maximum power = Nominal Torque
n(Pmax )  nn  Engine speed at maximum power = Nominal speed
n(Tmax )  Engine speed at maximum torque

Various indices are used to facilitate comparison between different types of engine. The two
most important indices are:
 torque increase (torque elasticity) defined as
Tmax

Tn
where (1)

Tmax  max imum engine torque
Tn  engine torque at max imum power, also known as no min al torque

Page 6 of 25
 engine speed ratio defined as
nn
v
n(Tmax )
where (2)
nn  engine speed at max imum power, also known as no min al speed
n(Tmax )  engine speed at max imum torque

PPmax
max
Power
Torque T
Engine

P(Tmax)

Tmax

Engine Power P
T(Pmax)
Torque
Torque

nmin n(Tmax) n(Pmax)

Engine Speed

Figure 4: Characteristic curves of an internal combustion engine

The higher value of the product  better engine power at low and medium engine speeds.
This in turn means less frequent gear changing.

Page 7 of 25
Electric Motor
The electric motors have are ideal for vehicle application because of the torque speed
characteristics of the motors (Figure 5). Electric motors are capable of delivering a high
starting torque. It is very important to select proper type of motor with a suitable rating. For
example, it is not accurate to simply refer to a 10 h.p. motor or a 15 h.p. motor, because
horsepower varies with volts and amps, and peak horsepower is much higher than the
continuous rating.

Power

Torque

Speed

Figure 5: Torque vs. speed and power vs. speed characteristics of electric motor

It is also confusing to compare electric motors to IC engines, since electric motors are
designed for a continuous rating under load and IC engines are rated at their peak horsepower
under loaded condition. The commonly used motors in EVs are:
 AC motors
 Permanent magnet (PM) motors
 Series wound DC motors
 Shunt wound DC motors

Page 8 of 25
The DC series motors were used in a number of prototype Electric Vehicle (EVs) and prior to
that mainly due to the ease of control. However, the size and maintenance requirements of DC
motors are making their use obsolete. The recent EVs and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
use AC, PM and Switched Reluctance motors. A classification of motors used in EVs is
shown in Figure 6.
Electric Motors

DC Motors AC Motors

S
Self excited Separately Induction Synchronous
Synchronous PM
rel
excited

Series Wound PM
Field rotor brushless dc
excited
Shunt
Squirrel
PM PM
cage Synchronous
excited
rotor

PM hybrid

Figure 6: Classification of electric motors used in EVs

The AC Induction Motor (IM) technology is very mature and significant research and
development activities have taken place in the area of induction motor drives. The control of
IM is more complex than DC motors, but the availability of fast digital processors,
computational complexity can easily be managed. The competitor to the induction motor is
the permanent magnet (PM) motor. The permanent magnet motors have magnets on the rotor,
while the stator construction is same as that of induction motor. The PM motors can be
surface mounted type or the magnets can be inset within the rotor. The PM motors can also be
classified as sinusoidal type or trapezoidal type depending on the flux density distribution in
the air gap. Permanent magnet motors with sinusoidal air gap flux distribution are called
Permanent Magnet synchronous Motors (PMSM) and the with trapezoidal air gap flux
distribution are called Brushless DC (BLDC) motors.

Page 9 of 25
The need for gearbox
Internal combustion engines today drive most of the automobiles. These internal combustion
engines work either on the principle of spark ignition or diesel principle. In addition to the
many advantages of the internal combustion engine, such as high power to weight ratio and
relatively compact energy storage, it has two fundamental disadvantages:
i. Unlike the electric motors, the internal combustion engine cannot produce
torque at zero speed.
ii. The internal combustion engine produces maximum power at a certain engine
speed.
iii. The efficiency of the engine, i.e. its fuel consumption, is very much dependent
on the operating point in the engine’s performance map.
With a maximum available engine power Pmax and a road speed of v, the ideal traction
hyperbola Fideal and the effective traction hyperbola Feffec can be calculated as follows:
Pmax
Fideal 
v
Pmax
F
ideal
 tot


v
where
tot  efficiency of the drivetrain
(1)
Hence, if the full load engine power Pmax were available over the whole speed range, the
traction hyperbolas shown in Figure 7 would result. However, the Pmax is not available for the
entire speed range. The actual traction profile of the ICE (Fengine) is shown in Figure 7. From
Figure 7 it is evident that the entire shaded area cannot be used.

Adhesion Limit Without drive train efficiency:Ideal

traction hyperbola Fideal
ideal

With drive train efficiency:Ideal

traction hyperbola Feffec
Tractive efort Fz

Internal combustion engine traction

available Fengine

Speed

Figure 7: Traction force vs. speed map of an internal combustion engine without gearbox

Page 10 of 25
In order to utilize the shaded area, shown in Figure 7, additional output converter is required.
The output converter must convert the characteristics of the combustion engine in such a way
that it approximates as closely as possible to the ideal traction hyperbola (Figure 8).

Adhesion Limit

Traction force available

in second gear

Traction required for 0% gradient

Tractive efort Fz

1stst
gear
gear
nd
2nd
gear
gear
3rd
th
gear 4th
gear

Speed

Figure 8: Traction force vs. speed map of an internal combustion engine with gearbox
The proportion of the shaded area, i.e. the proportion of impossible driving states, is significantly smaller when an output converter
is used. Thus, the power potential of the engine is better utilized. The Figure 8 shows how increasing the number of gears gives a
better approximation of the effective traction hyperbola.

Drive train tractive effort and vehicle speed

After having dealt with the configuration of the drivetrain, this section deals with the tractive
effort. The torque transmitted from the power plant to the driven wheels (Tw) is given by:
Tw  igiotTp
where
ig  gear ratio of the transmission (1)
io  gear ratio of the fianl drive
t  efficiency of the driveline from the power plant to the driven wheels
Tp  torque output from the power plant [Nm]

The tractive effort on the driven wheels (Figure 9) is expressed as

Tw
F 
rdyn
where (2)
rdyn  dynamic radius of the tyre [m]

Page 11 of 25
Substituting value of Tw from equation 1 into equation 2 gives
Tpigiot (3)
F 
rdyn

The total mechanical efficiency of the transmission between the engine output shaft and
driven wheels is the product of the efficiencies of all the components of the drive train.
The rotating speed of the driven wheel is given by
Np
N  [rpm]
ig io
where (4)
N p  rottational speed of the transmission [rpm]

The rotatational speed Np of the transmission is equal to the engine speed in the vehicle with a
manual transmission and the turbine speed of a torque converter in the vehicle with an
automatic transmission. The translation speed of the wheel (vehicle speed) is expressed as
 Nwrdyn
V [m / s] (5)
30
By substituting the value of Nw from equation 4 into equation 5, the vehicle speed can be
expressed as
 N p rdyn
V [m / s] (6)
30ig io

Vehicle performance
The performance of a vehicle is determined by the following factors:
 maximum cruising speed
 gradeability
 acceleration

Page 12 of 25
Maximum Cruising Speed
The maximum speed of a vehicle is defined as the constant cruising speed that the vehicle can
achieve with full power plant load on a flat road. The maximum speed of a vehicle is
determined by the equilibrium between the tractive effort of the vehicle and the resistance and
maximum speed of the power plant and gear ratios of the transmission. This equilibrium is:
Tpigi0t 1
 Mgf cos( )   C A V 2
a D f
rdyn 2
where
ig  gear ratio of the transmission (30)
i0  gear ratio of the final drive
t  efficiency of the driveline from the power plant to the driven wheels
Tp  torque output of the power plant [Nm]

equation 30 shows that the vehicle reaches its maximum speed when the tractive effort,
represented by the left hand side term, equals the resistance, represented by the right hand
side. The intersection of the tractive effort curve and the resistance curve is the maximum
speed of the vehicle, Figure 9.

120
Tractive effort
Resistance on grade
100

80
Tractive effor [Nm]

60

40

20

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Speed [km/h]

Figure 9: Tractive effort of an electric motor powered vehicle with a single speed transmission and its resistance

Page 13 of 25
For some vehicles, no intersection exists between the tractive effort curve and the resistance
curve, because of a large power plant. In such a case the maximum speed of the vehicle is
determined by the maximum speed of the power plant. This maximum speed is given by
 n p max rdyn
Vmax 
30i0ig min
where
ig min  min imum gear ratio of the transmission
(31)
i0  gear ratio of the final drive
np max  max imum speed of the power plant (motor or engine)[rpm]
Tp  torque output of the power plant [Nm]
rdyn  dynamic radius of the tyre [m]

Gradeability
Gradeability is defined as the grade angle that the vehicle can negotiate at a certain constant
speed. For heavy commercial vehicles the gradeability is usually defined as the maximum
grade angle that the vehicle can overcome in the whole speed range.
When the vehicle is driving on a road with relatively small grade and constant speed,
the tractive effort and resistance equilibrium can be expressed as
Tpi0igt 1
 Mgf r  a CD A f V  Mgi
2
(32)
rdyn 2

Hence,
T i i /r  Mgf 1/ 2 C A V 2
i p 0 g t dyn r a D f
 d  fr (33)
Mg

where
T i i /r 1/ 2 C A V 2
d p 0 g t dyn a D f
(34)
Mg

The factor d is called the performance factor. When the vehicle drives on a road with a large
grade, the gradeability of the vehicle can be calculated as
d f 2
1 d 2  f 2
sin( )  r
(35)
2
1 f

Page 14 of 25
Acceleration Performance
The acceleration of a vehicle is defined by its acceleration time and distance covered from
zero speed to a certain high speed on a level ground. The acceleration of the vehicle can be
expressed as
dV F F F T i i  /r  Mgf 1/ 2 C A V 2 g (36)
a  t f w 


p 0 g t dyn r a D f  (d  f )
M M  r
dt
where  is the rotational inertia factor taking into account the equivalent mass increase due to
the angular moments of the rotating components. This mass factor can be written as
Iw i02ig2 I p
  1  2
Mrdyn Mr
Iw  total angular inertial moment of the wheels
(37)
I p  total angular inertial moment of the rotating
components associated with the power plant

To determine the value of  , it is necessary to determine the values of the mass moments of
inertia of all the rotating parts. In case the mass moments of inertia are not available then, the
rotational factor (  ) can be approximated as:
  1 1   2i g2i 02
1  0.04 (38)
2  0.0025
The acceleration rate along with vehicle speed for a petrol engine powered vehicle with a four
gear transmission and an electric motor powered vehicle with a single gear transmission are
shown in Figure 10 and Figure 11 respectively.
5

4 1st gear

3
2nd gear

2
3rd gear

1 4th gear

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Speed [km/h]

Figure 10: Acceleration rate of a petrol engine powered vehicle with four gears

Page 15 of 25
 5

Acceleration (m/s2)
3

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Speed [km/h]

Figure 11: Acceleration rate of an electric machine powered vehicle with a single gear

From equation 36, the acceleration time ta and distance Sa from a lower speed V1 to a higher
speed V2 can be expressed as
V2 M
t  dV (39)
a
1 Tpigi0 / r  Mgf 1/ 2 C A V
t dyn r a D f

and
V2 MV (40)
S  dV
1 Tpigi0t / rdyn  Mgfr 1/ 2aCD Af V

The power plant torque Tp in equation 39 and equation 40 is a function of speed of the
power plant. The speed of the power plant is in turn a function of the vehicle speed and gear
ratio of the transmission. Hence, analytical solution of equation 39 and equation 40 is not
possible. Numerical methods are usually used to solve these equations.

Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor:

A brushless DC motor (also known as a BLDC motor or BL motor) is an electronically commuted
DC motor which does not have brushes. The controller provides pulses of current to the motor
windings which control the speed and torque of the synchronous motor.
BLDC motors produce significant torque across a broad speed range, thanks to permanent magnets
rotating around a stationary armature. Their electronic commutation offers flexible capabilities,
ensuring smooth operation and steady torque even when stationary.

Key learnings:
 BLDC Motor Definition: A brushless DC motor is defined as an electronically commutated
motor that lacks brushes, enhancing operational efficiency and torque.
 Core Components: The two primary components of a BLDC motor are the rotor, which rotates,
and the stator, which remains stationary.
 Operational Efficiency: BLDC motors excel in efficiency due to their brushless design, which
eliminates friction losses and allows precise speed control.
 Design Types: There are two main types of BLDC motor designs—inner rotor and outer rotor,
each influencing the motor’s performance and heat management.
 Advantages and Disadvantages: BLDC motors offer greater efficiency and longevity but tend
to cost more and require careful handling to prevent heat damage.

Page 16 of 25
Construction of BLDC Motor

BLDC motors can be constructed in different physical configurations. Depending on the stator
windings, these can be configured as single-phase, two-phase, or three-phase motors. However,
three-phase BLDC motors with permanent magnet rotor are most commonly used.
The construction of this motor has many similarities of three phase induction motor as well as
conventional DC motor. This motor has stator and rotor parts as like all other motors.

Stator
Stator of a BLDC motor made up of stacked steel laminations to carry the windings. These
windings are placed in slots which are axially cut along the inner periphery of the stator. These
windings can be arranged in either star or delta. However, most BLDC motors have three phase star
connected stator.
Each winding is constructed with numerous interconnected coils, where one or more coils are
placed in each slot. In order to form an even number of poles, each of these windings is distributed
over the stator periphery.
The stator must be chosen with the correct rating of the voltage depending on the power supply
capability. For robotics, automotive and small actuating applications, 48 V or less voltage BLDC
motors are preferred. For industrial applications and automation systems, 100 V or higher rating
motors are used.
Rotor
BLDC motor incorporates a permanent magnet in the rotor. The number of poles in the rotor can
vary from 2 to 8 pole pairs with alternate south and north poles depending on the application
requirement. In order to achieve maximum torque in the motor, the flux density of the material
should be high. A proper magnetic material for the rotor is needed to produce required magnetic
field density.
Ferrite magnets are inexpensive, however they have a low flux density for a given volume. Rare
earth alloy magnets are commonly used for new designs. Some of these alloys are Samarium Cobalt
(SmCo), Neodymium (Nd), and Ferrite and Boron (NdFeB). The rotor can be constructed with
different core configurations such as the circular core with permanent magnet on the periphery,
circular core with rectangular magnets, etc
Hall Sensors
Hall sensor provides the information to synchronize stator armature excitation with rotor position.
Since the commutation of BLDC motor is controlled electronically, the stator windings should be
energized in sequence in order to rotate the motor. Before energizing a particular stator winding,
acknowledgment of rotor position is necessary. So the Hall Effect sensor embedded in stator senses
the rotor position.
Page 17 of 25
Most BLDC motors incorporate three Hall sensors which are embedded into the stator. Each sensor
generates Low and High signals whenever the rotor poles pass near to it. The exact commutation
sequence to the stator winding can be determined based on the combination of these three sensor’s
response.

Working of Brushless DC Motor

BLDC motor works on the principle similar to that of a conventional DC motor, i.e., the Lorentz
force law which states that whenever a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field it
experiences a force. As a consequence of reaction force, the magnet will experience an equal and
opposite force. In case BLDC motor, the current carrying conductor is stationary while the
permanent magnet moves.

When the stator coils are electrically switched by a supply source, it becomes electromagnet and
starts producing the uniform field in the air gap. Though the source of supply is DC, switching
makes to generate an AC voltage waveform with trapezoidal shape. Due to the force of interaction
between electromagnet stator and permanent magnet rotor, the rotor continues to rotate.
Consider the figure below in which motor stator is excited based on different switching states. With
the switching of windings as High and Low signals, corresponding winding energized as North and
South poles. The permanent magnet rotor with North and South poles align with stator poles
causing motor to rotate.
Observe that motor produces torque because of the development of attraction forces (when North-
South or South-North alignment) and repulsion forces (when North-North or South-South
alignment). By this way motor moves in a clockwise direction.

Page 18 of 25
Here, one might get a question that how we know which stator coil should be energized and when
to do. This is because; the motor continuous rotation depends on the switching sequence around the
coils. As discussed above that Hall sensors give shaft position feedback to the electronic controller
unit.
Based on this signal from sensor, the controller decides particular coils to energize. Hall-effect
sensors generate Low and High level signals whenever rotor poles pass near to it. These signals
determine the position of the shaft.

Switched Reluctance Motor:

An electric motor like SRM (switched reluctance motor) runs through reluctance torque. Different
from the types of common brushed DC motor, power can be transmitted to windings within the
stator instead of the rotor. An alternate name of this motor is VRM (Variable Reluctance Motor).
For a better operation of this motor, it uses a switching inverter. The control characteristics of this
motor are the same as dc motors which electronically commutated. These motors are applicable
where sizing, as well as horsepower (hp) to weight, is critical.This motor simplifies its mechanical
design to restrict the flow of current toward a rotary part; however, it complicates the design
because some kind of switching system must be employed to transmit the power toward the
different windings. This mechanical design can also be used for a generator. The load can be
switched toward the coils within the sequence to coordinate the flow of current through the rotation.
So these generators can also run at high speed as compared with conventional types of motors
because the armature is made like a single piece of magnetisable material like a slotted cylinder.

Switched Reluctance Motor Construction

The construction of the switched reluctance motor is shown below. This motor includes 6- stator
poles as well as 4 rotor poles. The design of the stator can be done using silicon steel stampings
inside projected poles. The poles in the stator are either an odd number or even number. Most of the
electric motors have an even number of poles within the stator which have field coils.

Construction of Switched Reluctance Motor

When the poles are opposite then the field coils will be connected in series. So their magnetomotive
forces are additive which are called phase windings. A set of coils or a single-coil can comprise
phase windings. Each winding can be connected to the motor terminal and these are properly
connected toward the o/p terminals of a switching circuitry of power semiconductor. The input of
this is a DC supply.

Page 19 of 25
 The designing of the rotor can be done with Si steel stampings through externally projected poles.
The rotor poles are dissimilar as compared with the stator poles. In most of the existing motors, the
rotor poles are 4 otherwise 6 based on the number of stator poles like 6 8. The shaft of the rotor
holds a position sensor. So the operating of various devices in the power semiconductor circuitry is
mainly controlled through the signals attained from this sensor. In this motor, both the stator as well
as rotor includes a projected pole that is designed with a soft iron as well as silicon stampings which
are used for reducing hysteresis losses. The stator of the motor includes a field winding whereas the
rotor doesn’t. In the stator, each winding can be connected within the series through the opposite
poles for increasing the magneto motive force of the circuit.

Working Principle

The working principle of the switched reluctance motor is, it works on the principle of variable
reluctance that means, the rotor of this motor constantly tries to align through the lowest reluctance
lane.
The formation of the rotary magnetic field can be done using the circuit of power electronics
switching. In this, the magnetic circuit’s reluctance can mainly depend on the air gap. Therefore, by
modifying the air gap among the rotor as well as a stator, we can also modify the reluctance of this
motor.
Here, reluctance can be defined as resistance toward the magnetic flux. For Electrical circuits,
reluctance is the combination of resistance as well as the magnetic circuit.

Designing and Sizing of Traction Motor:

Designing and sizing a traction motor involves selecting the appropriate motor type and dimensions
to meet specific vehicle performance requirements, while also considering factors like efficiency,
cost, and packaging. This process often involves optimizing for a balance between driving
performance, energy consumption, and unsprung mass. Key considerations include the vehicle's
acceleration, top speed, and range, as well as the operating conditions it will encounter.
1. Understanding Vehicle Requirements:
 Performance Targets:
Define the vehicle's desired acceleration, top speed, and gradeability based on the application
(e.g., electric car, bus, or train).
 Operating Conditions:
Consider the typical driving cycle, including speed profiles, acceleration requirements, and
environmental factors like temperature.
 Load Characteristics:
Determine the load the vehicle needs to overcome, such as aerodynamic drag, rolling resistance,
and grade resistance.
2. Choosing the Motor Type:
 AC Motors:
AC motors, including synchronous and asynchronous (induction) types, are popular due to their
reliability and compatibility with modern motor control electronics.
 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSM):
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 PMSMs offer high efficiency and torque density, making them suitable for electric vehicles.
 Induction Motors:
Induction motors are a good option for applications where cost and simplicity are prioritized, and
they can be designed to have high efficiency in specific driving cycles.
 DC Motors:
DC motors can provide strong starting torque and speed control, making them suitable for
applications like trains.
3. Motor Sizing and Optimization:
 Rated Torque and Speed:
The motor's rated torque and speed are critical design parameters, and they should be optimized
for the vehicle's performance requirements.
 Constant Power Ratio (CPSR):
A higher CPSR allows the motor to operate over a wider speed range and potentially minimize
transmission costs.
 Efficiency:
The motor's efficiency directly impacts the vehicle's range and energy consumption, so
maximizing efficiency is a key objective.
 Cooling:
Adequate cooling is essential to prevent overheating and ensure the motor's reliability.
 Size and Weight:
Minimizing motor size and weight is important for maximizing vehicle efficiency and reducing
unsprung mass.
 Packaging:
The motor's physical dimensions must fit within the available space in the vehicle.
4. Optimization Techniques:
 Multi-objective optimization:
Consider multiple objectives like performance, efficiency, cost, and size during the design
process.
 Equivalent driving cycle points extraction:
Use simplified driving cycles to reduce the complexity of the optimization process.
 Scalable electric machine model:
Employ a scalable model that can be adjusted for different vehicle applications.
 Simulation and analysis:
Use simulation software to analyze the motor's performance and optimize its design.
5. Design Considerations for Specific Applications:
 Electric Vehicles (EVs): Focus on maximizing efficiency, range, and performance.

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 Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): Optimize the motor for both electric and hybrid operation.
 Traction Motors for Large Goods Vehicles: Prioritize higher torque, power, and speed capabilities.
 Railway Applications: Consider factors like motor topology, cooling systems, and insulation.

Permanent Magnet Motor Drives:

Permanent magnet motor drives are a type of motor drive system that utilizes permanent magnets to
create the magnetic field needed for operation. These motors can be either DC or AC, and they offer
several advantages over other types of motor drives, such as high efficiency, compact size, and
good torque characteristics.
Permanent Magnet DC Motors (PMDC Motors):
Construction:
PMDC motors use permanent magnets to create the magnetic field, eliminating the need for a
field winding like in traditional DC motors.
Operation:
The armature winding, powered by a DC source, interacts with the permanent magnet field to
produce torque and rotation.
Applications:
PMDC motors are commonly used in applications where size and cost are important, such as in
hair dryers, battery-powered toys, and small electric vehicles.
Limitations:
The fixed magnetic field of a PMDC motor limits speed control options, as the speed can't be
easily adjusted by varying the field strength.
Advantages:
High efficiency, compact size, simple design, and relatively low cost.
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSMs):
Construction:
PMSMs have a stator with three-phase windings and a rotor with embedded permanent magnets.
Operation:
The stator windings create a rotating magnetic field that induces electromotive force (back EMF)
in the rotor windings. The rotor's permanent magnets track the rotating field, resulting in
synchronous rotation.
Types:
Surface-Mounted PMSMs (SPMSMs): Permanent magnets are mounted on the rotor surface.
Interior PMSMs (IPMSMs): Permanent magnets are embedded within the rotor iron.
Applications:

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PMSMs are used in various applications, including electric vehicles, robotics, and industrial
drives, where high efficiency and good torque characteristics are needed.
Advantages:
High efficiency, compact size, good torque, and smooth operation.
Limitations:
PMSM drives typically require more sophisticated control systems compared to simpler motor
types.
Advantages of Permanent Magnet Motor Drives:
High Efficiency:
Permanent magnet motors generally have higher efficiencies than induction motors, as they
eliminate the energy losses associated with field excitation.
Compact Size:
Due to the use of permanent magnets, permanent magnet motors can be designed with smaller
frame sizes for a given power output.
Good Torque Characteristics:
PMSMs, in particular, offer good torque performance, especially in the low-speed range.
High Power Density:
Permanent magnet motors can deliver higher power output for their size compared to other motor
types.
Reduced Energy Consumption:
The high efficiency of these motors contributes to lower energy consumption and reduced
operating costs.
Applications of Permanent Magnet Motor Drives:
Electric Vehicles:
PMSMs are a popular choice for electric vehicle traction motors due to their high efficiency,
compact size, and good torque characteristics.
Industrial Drives:
PMSMs are used in various industrial applications, such as pumps, compressors, and conveyors,
where high efficiency and precise speed control are required.
Robotics:
The compact size, good torque, and smooth operation of PMSMs make them suitable for robotic
applications.
HVAC Systems:
PMSMs are used in HVAC systems for applications like fans and compressors.
In summary, permanent magnet motor drives offer several advantages over traditional motor types,
including high efficiency, compact size, and good torque characteristics. They are widely used in a
variety of applications, ranging from electric vehicles and industrial drives to robotics and HVAC
systems.
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Doubly Salient Permanent Magnet (DSPM) Machines:
Doubly salient permanent magnet (DSPM) machines, like motors or generators, have both the stator
and rotor with salient poles, where the poles are protruded outwards. The stator typically has
windings, and permanent magnets are embedded within the rotor or stator. These machines can be
designed with a dual stator structure or other configurations to optimize performance.
Construction:

Salient Poles:
Both the stator and rotor have salient poles, meaning the poles are protruded outwards, creating a
magnetic field.
Stator Winding:
The stator typically has windings that are used to generate or utilize electrical power.
Permanent Magnets:
Permanent magnets are embedded in either the rotor or stator, creating a permanent magnetic
field.
Dual Stator Structure:
Some DSPM machines have a dual stator structure, where two stators are positioned at a certain
angle to each other.
Pole Configurations:
The number of stator and rotor poles, and their relative angles, can be optimized to achieve high
power density and efficiency.

Working Principle:

Magnetic Field Interaction:

The permanent magnets in the rotor or stator interact with the windings in the other member
(stator or rotor) to generate or utilize electrical power.
Flux Linkage:

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The doubly salient structure helps improve the flux linkage, which is the measure of how much
magnetic flux passes through the windings.
Torque Generation (Motors):
In motors, the interaction between the magnetic fields from the rotor's magnets and the stator's
windings generates a torque, causing the rotor to rotate.
Power Generation (Generators):
In generators, the rotation of the rotor with its permanent magnets induces a voltage in the stator
windings, generating electrical power.
Cogging Torque:
The magnetic field interaction can also create cogging torque, a force that causes the rotor to stick
in certain positions, which can be minimized through design optimization.

Advantages of DSPM Machines:

High Power Density:

The doubly salient structure and the use of permanent magnets can lead to high power density,
meaning a large amount of power can be generated or utilized in a compact machine.
Wide Speed Range:
DSPM machines can operate over a wide range of speeds, making them suitable for various
applications.
Simple Structure:
Some DSPM structures are relatively simple to manufacture and maintain.
High Efficiency:
Efficient use of magnetic materials and the doubly salient structure can lead to high efficiency.

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