Graph Coloring
Era Definition
Given a Graph G the GRAPH COLORING
Problem is to color the vertices of the graph
such that adjacent vertices have different colors
The minimum number of colors need to color
a graph G is called chromatic number
dentoed XCG
X G 3
Graph G
Def A k coloring of a graph G is a
labeling f VIGI 1121 K
A k coloring is Proper it adjacent vertices
have different labels for colors
A graph is k colorable if it has a
proper k coloring The chromatic number G is
the least k such that G is k colorable
A subset of vertices assigned to the Same Color
is called a color class
Rema In a Proper coloring each color class
is an independent set so G is k colorable
if and only if V16 is the union of
k independent sets
All the graphs considered in this chapter are simple
Example 1
Cs Cycle 312 5 3
11
Co Cycle
I
T2 X 6 2
In general X even 2 and
X Codd 3
Complete Graph kn X kn n
Path Pn X Pn 2
For any graph G LEXIE EN
Applications
Scheduling
suppose we want to Schedue classes for
Cs courses for the Courcees A b C d e f g
god
No two courses with a common student are
scheduled at same time
we have to use minimum of time slots
we convert this to a coloring Problem
Courses represent Vertices 9 Two vertices are adjacent
if the corresponding courses have a common student
Exagple
We need 3 Slots to schedule the classes
Blue Slot 1 d g a red slots b c
Green Slot 2 Leif
Remy Labels like Red Blue etc are only used
when the number of colors is small and normally
the labels colors are drawn from the integers41,2
Other Appitions
Frequency assignment
Sudoku
Solving Sudoku Puzzles 9 9
Puzzle solution
God Fill in the blank cells so that each row
Column and 3 3 box has the numbers 1 to 9
exactly once
We construct a graph G from a given Puzzle
G contains one vertex Per each cell
Two vertices of G are adjacent it the corresponding
cells can't be filled with same number
The Problem of solving a Sudoku puzzle can be
represented as on the graph G
Afgynentsion
Irecoloring extension is the Problem of extending a
graphcoloring of a subset of the vertices of a graph
with a given set of colors to a Proper coloring
of the whole graph
As some cells of Sudoku are filled If a
cell Ci is filled with integer ni the we assign
Ui corresponding vertex of si the color Ni
our goal is to extend Partial Coloring of G
to a proper coloring of the whole graph using
colors 1121 9
Coloring of BipartiteGrads
Lemme A graph G is bipartite iff it is 2 colorable
RI F G AUB E is bipartite
define f Vca 4112 as
I if UEA
flu
2 if VEB
clearly f is a 2 Coloring of G
E if G is a 2 colorable graph
Let f UCG 721,2 be a 2 coloring of G
let A V Fae I
13 617107 2
Cheely A and B are independent sets
hence G AUB E is bipartite
theorem A graph with maximum degree d
is 9 1 colorable
Prof Proof by induction on of vertices
P K If a k vertex graph has max deg d
then it is dtl colorable
Basecase k 1 only one verten 1 colorable
max
degree 0
Inductive step assume PCK is true for IÉin
we need to show that PK 1 is true
Let G be a graph with K vertices and
has max degree d
0
incident to
64 all edges
remove an arbitrary veeten from G they
Gku has at most k veetics max deg d
GK is d colorable
Now add the vertex v to G
observe that U has d neighbors and available
colors are d l so we can pick a color for v
that is different from the colors of all these
adjacent vertices neighbors
i we get a
coloring of G with at most
d colors
Élan.ee ygiiyagritumsw'graena
using DCG 1
many colors
where DCG denote the maximum deg ofG
Algorithm
A graph G and an ordering vertices h or Un
Ilp
Otp A k vertex coloring of G for some k
where KE ACG
Color vertex re with 1
Suppose 61,62 Ui are colored using t
colors say I t let T be the set of
color used to color the vertices adjacent with bit
ta if T Li t
colluity
otherwise
Min 1,2 t IT
STOP when Un is colored
Example
Us
Note the Chromatic number
of G varies according to the
vertices
ordering of the input
For the ordering V V2 V3 Vy V5 V6 the
greedy algorithm uses Two colors
For the ordering U v6 Us by U2V5 the
greedy algorithm uses Four colors
Recap
cue A subgraph Q of a graph G is called
a clique if any two vertices in Q are adjacent
The clique number of G is the integer
W G Max VQ Q is a cliane
If H is a subgraph of G then G H
G W G
For which graphs X G W G or
G W G 1 XCG f WCG for some f
Mycielski 1955 showed that for any KEIN
there exists a graph G with WG 2 G L
Desk's term
For any given integer k 7,1 there exists
a graph Gk with Chromatic number k
inglfree
has No kg as a Subgraph
Proof We construct Gk by induction on k
For k 1 and 2 G KI Ga Kz
suppose we have constructed a triangle free graph
sad
Gk on n vertices u tea In 11 14 on
Construct Get from Gk as follows
1 Add Ntl new vertices a uz Un 2 to Gk
2 Join Ui If i Sn to all those vertices
which in GK
say
to Ui is adjacent U Lui an
3 Join 2 to every Ui
vs
us
us
o
We need to show Gets is triangle free
and XCGKA KH
Claire Gkn is triangle free
proof by contradiction
suppose Gkn has a triangle T
Since original graph Gk is triangle free at
of
least one veeter T must be is 2 or Ui for
some E
if ZET then other two vertices must be
from U but this is contradiction as no two
vertices in 0 are adjacent
if 24T 9 Ui ET their other two vertices
of T are
Up 80g for some P.EE En
But then vi Up Vq forms a triangle
in GK which is again a contradiction
Therefore Gkt is triangle free
Claire X Gkn KH
Since Gk is Subgraph of Gatt
we have X Gai XCGic k
if f V Gic Li k is a k coloring of Gk
then g V Gkn Ll Kika defined as
Isis n
gcoiffloi
91mi f Ui Isi en
g z KH
clearly g is a KH coloring of Gkn
We also have to show that X Gkt K
Suppose XCGkH k h V Giap Lii k
is a k Coloring of Gkn
WLOG ht hc2 k ie hai k for ietn
define g V Gic Li K I
hoi if hai K
glad
hail k
h Ui if
It is easy to see that
g is K D coloring
of Gis This is a contradiction to X Gk k
X Gkn Ktl
