©) studocu 4th-sem-dbms notes (abhimanu)By: Abhimanu Yadav Introduction of Database D Purpose of database system View of data Database languages Transaction management Database administrator System structure Data is commonly defined as raw facts or observation, typically about physical phenomena or business transactions. For example of data would be the marks obtained by students in different subjects. Data can be in any form-numerical, textual, graphical, image, sound, video etc. The following figure shows the hierarchy of data storage. Bit Character Field Record File Database Fig:- Data storage hierarchy Information: Information is defined as refined or processed data that has been transformed into meaningful and useful form for specific users. For example, after processing the marks obtained by student it transformed into information, which is meaningful and from which we can decide which student stood first, second and so forth. Information comes from data and takes the form of table, graphs, diagrams etc. 1 » €studocu Downloaded by Mana Edt ([email protected]) ‘his document i avBy: Abhimanu Yadav Database: A database is an organized collection of data and contains information relevant to an enterprise. The database is also called the repository or container for a collection of data files. For example, university database for maintaining information about students, courses and grades in university. Characteristics of data in database: The data in a database should have the following features: "Shared: Data should be sharable among different users and applications. * Persistence: Data should exist permanently in the database. Changes in the database must not be lost because of any failure. * Validity/Integrity/Correctness: It should maintain the integrity so that there is always correct data in the database. + Security: Data should be protected from unauthorized access. + Non-redundancy: Data should not be repeated. * Consistency: A consistent state of the database satisfies all the constraints specified in the database. Data in a database is consistent if any changes in the database take the database from one consistent state to another. «Independence: The three levels in the schema should be independent of each other so that the changes in the schema in one level should not affect the other levels. Database Management System: A Database Management System (DBMS) is a collection of interrelated data and the set of programs to access those data. The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide a way to store and retrieve database information that is both convenient and efficient. For example, in a computer system, the checking account processing system, the auto loan system and the saving accounts would have a common database. This database based approach to data processing is shown in fig below: Organizational Checking Account | | Program Database Management database system (DBMS) |*> auto toan program Saving Account Fig: Database approach to data processing Program Downloaded by Mana Edt (manaedtuu@gmalcom)By: Abhimanu Yadav Objective of DBMS ‘The DBMS is able "To provide large space or storage for relevant data. + To provide easy access to the data for the users. + To provide quick response to user request for any data, * To remove duplicate (redundant) data. * To update the database latest modification immediately. * To allow the multiple users to be active at one time. * As the organization grows, DBMS allows the growth of the database system. * To provide maximum protection to data from any physical damage and unauthorized a . Database system: ‘A database system consists of database, database Management system, and application program. A database system is just a computerized record keeping system. Database is a repository for a collection of computerized data files. Users of database system can perform a variety of operation on such file. ‘Some common examples of the DBMS software are Oracle, Sybase, Microsoft SQL Server, DB2, MySQL, Postgres, Dbase, Ms-Access etc. Applications of DBMS: Databases form an essential part of almost all enterprises. Some database applications are given below: = Banking: For customer information and all transactions * Airlines: For reservations and schedules information = Universities: For the student information , course registration and grades = Credit and transaction: For purchase credit cards and generates monthly statement = Telecommunication: Keeping records of all the telephone calls, generating monthly bills ete. = Finance: For storing financial information * Sales :For customers, products and purchases information = Manufacturing: For tacking production, inventory, orders, supply chain management = Human resources: For storing the information about employee records, salaries, tax deductions Flat-file Systems: A flat file system stores data in a plain text file. A flat file is a file that contains records, and in which each record is specified in a single line. Fields from each record may simply have a fixed width with padding, or may be delimited by whitespace, tabs, commas or other characters. Extra formatting may be needed to avoid delimiter collision. There ate no structural 3 » €studocu Downloaded by Mana Edt ([email protected]) ‘his document i avBy: Abhimanu Yadav relationships, The data are "flat" as a relational database. as in a sheet of paper, in contrast to more complex models such For example, in a computer system, the checking account processing system would have its own data files. This file based approach to data processing is shown in fig below: (Checking Account Checking Account Programs Data Files Fig: File-based approach to data processing Limitations of Flat File System: Keeping organizational information in a file-processing system has a number of major disadvantages: > Data redundancy: The address and telephone number of a particular customer may appear in a file that consists of savings-account records and in a file that consists of checking-account records. This redundancy leads to higher storage and access cos! > Data inconsistency: The various copies of the same data may no longer agree. For example, a changed customer address may be reflected in savings-account records but not elsewhere in the system. > Difficulty in accessing data: Conventional file-processing environments do not allow needed data to be retrieved in a convenient and efficient manner Data isolation: Because data are scattered in various files, and files may be in different formats, writing new application programs to retrieve the appropriate data is difficult. Integrity problems: The problem of integrity is the problem of ensuring that the data in database is correct afler and before the transaction, For example, the balance of a bank account may never fall below a prescribed amount (say, $25). When new constraints are added, we have to change the programs to enforce them. Atomicity problems: Execution of transactions must be atomic. This means transactions must execute at its entirety or not at all. Consider a program to transfer $50 from account 4 to account B. If a system failure occurs during the execution of the program, it is possible that the $50 was removed from account 4 but was not credited to account B, resulting in an inconsistent database state. It is difficult to ensure atomicity in a conventional file-processing system. Concurrent-access anomalies: Concurrent updates may result in inconsistent data Consider bank account A, containing $500. If two customers withdraw funds (say $50 and $100 respectively) from account A at about the same time, the result of the concurrent executions may leave the account in an incorrect (or inconsistent) state, if the programs executing on behalf of each withdrawal read the old balance > Security problems: Not every user of the database system should be able to access all the data. For example, in a banking system, payroll personnel need to see only that part of the database that has information about the various bank employees. They do v v v v 4 Downloaded by Mana Edt ([email protected]By: Abhimanu Yadav not need access to information about customer accounts. But, since application programs are added to the system in an ad hoc manner, enforcing such security constraints is difficult in flat file system. Purpose of DBMS (Functions of DBMS): The benefits of using DBMS are: > To reduce redundancy: Repeating of the same information in database is called redundancy of data which leads to several problems such as wastage of space, duplication effort for entering data and inconsistency. When DBMS is used and database is created, redundancy is minimized, To avoid inconsistency: The database is said to be inconsistent if various copies of the same data may no longer agree. For example, a changed customer address may be reflected in saving account but not elsewhere in the system. By using DBMS we can avoid inconsistency. To share data: The data in the database can be shared among many users and applications. The data requirements of new applications may be satisfied without having to create any new stored files To provide support for transactions: A transaction is a sequence of database operations that represents a logical unit of work. It accesses a database and transforms it from one state to another. A transaction can update a record, delete one, modify a set of records etc. when the DBMS does a ‘commit’, the changes made by the transaction are made permanent, We can roll back the transaction to undo the effects of transaction. > To maintain integrity: Most database applications have certain integrity constraints that must hold for the data. A DBMS provides capabilities for defining and enforcing these constraints, For example, the value of roll number field of each student in student database should be unique for each student. It is a type of rule, Such a rule is enforced using constraint at the time of creation of database. To enforce security: Not every user of the database system should be able to access all data, Different checks can be established for each type of access (retrieve, modify, delete, etc) to each piece of information in the database. To provide efficient backup and recovery: Provide facilities for recovering from software and hardware failures to restore database to previous consistent state, > To Concurrent Access Database: Concurrent access means access to the same data simultaneously by more than one user. The same data may be used by many users for the purpose reading at the same time. But when a user tries to modify a data, there should be a concurrency control mechanism to avoid the inconsistency of data. A DBMS provides facilities for these operations. v v v v v Disadvantages of DBMS «Problem associated with centralization: Centralization increases the security problems. = Cost of software: Today’s there are several softwares which are very costly. Hence from economic point of view it is the drawback. » €studocu Downloaded by Mana Edt ([email protected]) ‘his document i avBy: Abhimanu Yadav * Cost of hardware: To support various software some upgraded hardware components are needed. Hence from economic point of view it is the drawback, + Complexity of backup and recovery: DBMS provides the centralization of the data, which requires the adequate backups of data. * Overhead for providing generality, security, recovery, integrity, and control. * Ifthe database and applications are simple, well defined, and not expected to change. = If there are stringent real-time requirements that may not be met because of DBMS concurrency overhead. Differences bet” DBMS and file processing system: 1 ‘A Database Management System (DBMS) is a collection of interrelated data and the set of programs to access those data 1 A flat file system stores data in a plain text file. A flat file is a file that contains records, and in which each record is specified in a single line. 2. Data redundancy problem is not found. | 2, Data redundancy problem exist. 3. Data inconsistency does not exist. 3. Data inconsistency may exist. 4. Accessing data from database is easier. | 4. Accessing data from database is comparatively difficult. 5. The problem of data isolations is not | 5. Here data are scattered in various files found. and formats so data isolation problem 6. Atomicity and integrating problems | — exist. are not found. 6. Here these problems are found. 7. Data are more secure 7. Data are less secure. 8. Concurrent access and crash recovery. | 8. Here there is no concurrent access and no recovery. Views of Data/ Data abstraction The system hides certain details of how the data are stored and maintained and such view is an abstract view. ¥ The Database System provides users with an abstract view of the data Data Abstractior - The database designers use the complex data structure to represent the data in the database and developer hides the complexity from user from several level of abstraction such as physical level, logical level, and view level. This process is called data abstraction. Downloaded by Mana Edt (manaedkuu@gmalcoBy: Abhimanu Yadav Levels of Data Abstraction: ‘The three levels of data abstraction can be shown as follows: External view View 1 View 2 View n View level Conceptual Level Internal Level Logical Level I Physical Level stored database a) C_] [_] Physical level It is the lowest level of abstractions describes how the data are actually stored. The physical level describes complex low level data structure in details. v v v v Y Ibis the next higher level of data abstraction which describes what data are stored in the At this level records such as customer, account can be described as a block of consecutive Three levels of data abstraction storage location (e.g. byte, word) The database system hides many of the lowest level storage details from database programmer. Database administrator may be aware of certain details of the physical organization of the data. Logical level database, and what relationships exist among those data Y At the logical level , each record is described by a type definition Y Programmers and database administrator works at this level of abstraction. View level Y It is the highest level of abstraction describes only a part of the database and hides some v information to the user. ‘At view level, computer users see a set of application programs that hide details of data types. Similarly at the view level several views of the database are defined and database user see only these views. Views also provides the security mechanism to prevent users from accessing certain parts of the database (that is views can also hide information (such as an employee's salary) for security purposes.) 7 eo © studocu Downloaded by Mana Edt ([email protected]) ‘This documentBy: Abhimanu Yadav Instances and Schemas instance (Database State): The collection of information stored in the database at a particular moment is called an instance of the database. Itis the actual content of the database at a particular point in time Y The term instance is also applied to individual database components, ¢.g. record instance, table instance, entity instance. Initial Database State Refers to the database state when it is initially loaded into the system. Valid State A state that satisfies the structure and constraints of the database. Schem: The overall design of the database which is not expected to change frequently is called database schema. Simply, the database schema is the logical structure of the database. Y The concept of database schema and instances can be understood by analogy to a program written in a programming language YA database schema corresponds to the variable declaration and the values of the variables, in a program at a point in time correspond to an instance of a database. Y The database systems have several schemas and partitioned according to the level of abstraction such as physical and logical schema, STUDENT. Fig: Schema diagram for Student Note: Y The database schema changes very infrequently. Y The database state changes every time the database is updated Data Independence The three schema architecture further explains the concept of data independence, the capacity to change the schema at one level without having to change the schema at the next higher level. > Logical Data Independence > Physical Data Independence Logical Data Independence: ‘The capacity to change the conceptual schema without having to change the external schemas and their associated application programs is called logical data independence. When modification is done to the conceptual schema (i.e tables) the mapping called “external mapping” is changes automatically by DBMS. Downloaded by Mana Edt (manaedtuu@gmal com)