Chapter 2

Functions

2.1 Introduction

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Definition [Function]. Let A and B be two non-empty sets. A relation f : A → B is called a
function (or mapping) if each element x ∈ A is associated with a unique element y ∈ B. The

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element y is called the image of x under f , denoted as f (x).

→ Each element of A must have exactly one image in B.

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→ Different elements in A may have the same image in B.
→ Some elements in B may not have a pre-image in A.

Example- Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c, d, e}. Suppose f is defined as:

f (1) = b, f (2) = d, f (3) = c, f (4) = a.
Since each element in A is mapped to a unique element in B, f is a function.

Example- If g : {1, 2, 3} → {a, b, c} is given by:

g(1) = a, g(2) = b, g(2) = c,
then g is not a function because 2 is mapped to both b and c, violating the uniqueness condition.

Definition. Let f : A → B be a function, where:

• Domain (f ): The set of all permissible inputs.

• Codomain (f ): The set that contains all possible outputs of f .

11
CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 12

• Range (f ): The actual set of values attained by f , defined as: f (A) = {f (x) | x ∈ A} ⊆ B.

Example- Consider the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = x2 . Then:

• Domain: R (all real numbers).

• Codomain: R.

• Range: [0, ∞), since x2 ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R.

Definition [Graph of a Function]. The graph of a function f : R → R is the set of all points

A
(x, f (x)) in the Cartesian plane, where x belongs to the domain of f . That is,
Graph(f ) = {(x, f (x)) | x ∈ Domain(f )}.

Vertical Line Test : The vertical line test is a method used to determine whether a given graph
represents a function.
It states that a graph represents a function if and only if no vertical line parallel to y − axis

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intersects the graph at more than one point.

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y y

Graph of a Function Graph of a Non-Function

(Passes the Vertical Line Test) (Fails the Vertical Line Test)

The graph above represents a circle (x2 + y 2 = 1), which fails the vertical line test because the
vertical line intersects the graph at two points.
Algebra of Functions : Let f and g be two functions with domains Df and Dg , respectively. We
define the following algebraic operations:

1. Addition: (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

2. Subtraction: (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x)

CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 13

3. Multiplication: (f g)(x) = f (x) · g(x)

f (x)
f 
4. Division: g (x) = g(x)
, provided g(x) , 0

5. Scalar Multiplication: (λf )(x) = λf (x) for any scalar λ ∈ R

The domain of the resulting function is the intersection of the domains of f and g, except for
division, where we must also exclude points where g(x) = 0.

Example- Finding DOD of Functions.

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1
√
1. Let f (x) = x−2 , g(x) = x − 1. Find the domain of (f + g)(x) and (f g)(x).

Solution:

• f (x) is defined for x , 2.

• g(x) is defined for x ≥ 1.

• The common domain is [1, ∞), but we must exclude x = 2.

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Thus, the domain is:[1, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)

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f 
1
2. Let f (x) = x−3 , g(x) = log(x − 1). Find the domain of g (x).

Solution:

• f (x) is defined for x , 3.

• g(x) is defined for x > 1.

• The common domain is (1, ∞), but we must exclude x = 3 because f (x) is undefined
there.

Thus, the domain is:(1, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)

Question. Find the domain of the function:

sin x
f (x) =
x−π

Solution:

• The numerator, sin x is well-defined for all real x.

CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 14

• The denominator, x − π, is zero when x = π. Since division by zero is undefined, we must

exclude x = π.

Thus, the domain is: R \ {π} = (−∞, π) ∪ (π, ∞)

Question. Find the domain of the function:

log(x − 1)
f (x) =
x2 − 4

Solution:

1. Logarithm Condition: The argument of the logarithm must be positive:

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x−1 > 0 ⇒ x > 1
So, we initially have (1, ∞) as the possible domain.

2. Denominator Condition: The denominator must not be zero:

x2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ x = ±2
We already have x > 1, so we only need to exclude x = 2.

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Thus, the domain is:(1, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)

Definition [Equal Functions]. Two functions f and g are said to be equal if:

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1. They have the same domain.

2. They have the same output for every input in their domain, i.e.,
f (x) = g(x) ∀x ∈ Df = Dg .

Definition [Real-Valued Functions]. A function is called real-valued if its output is a real

number for all inputs in its domain, i.e.,
f :A→R
where A is a subset of R.

Example- Consider:
√
f (x) = x2 + 3x − 1, g(x) = x − 2

• f (x) is real-valued for all x ∈ R.

• g(x) is only real-valued when x ≥ 2.

Thus, f (x) is a real-valued function on R, but g(x) is real-valued only on [2, ∞).
CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 15

2.2 Types of Functions

Injective and Surjective Functions

Definition [Injective (One-One) Function]. A function f : A → B is called injective (or one-

one) if different elements in the domain have different images in the codomain. That is,
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2
for all x1 , x2 ∈ A.

y
y = x+1

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Horizontal Line Test : A function f (x) is one-
one if every horizontal line cuts the graph at Horizontal Line

most once. If a horizontal line intersects the

graph more than once, the function is many- x
one.

Example- The function f (x) = 2x + 3 is injective because:

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f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ 2x1 + 3 = 2x2 + 3 ⇒ x1 = x2 .

Definition [Many-One Function]. A function f : A → B is called many-one if there exist dis-

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tinct elements x1 , x2 ∈ A such that:
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) for x1 , x2 .

Example- The function f (x) = x2 is many-one because:

f (2) = f (−2) = 4.

Definition [Surjective (Onto) Function]. A function f : A → B is called surjective (or onto)

if every element in B is mapped to by at least one element in A. That is,
∀y ∈ B, ∃x ∈ A such that f (x) = y.

√
Example- The function f (x) = x3 is surjective because for every y ∈ R, there exists x = 3 y such
that f (x) = y.

Definition [Into Function]. A function f : A → B is called into if there exists at least one
element in B that is not mapped by any element of A.

Example- The function f (x) = ex is into because ex > 0 for all x ∈ R.

CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 16

Key Properties:

• A function that is entirely increasing or entirely decreasing in its whole domain is one-
one.

• A polynomial function f : R → R is onto if its degree is odd, and into if its degree is even.

• An into function can be made onto by redefining the co-domain as the range of the func-
tion.

Example- Here are some examples that illustrate the above properties in detail:

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1. f (x) = 2x + 3 (increasing, hence one-one).

2. f (x) = −x3 (decreasing, hence one-one).

3. f (x) = x3 + 2x (degree 3, odd ⇒ onto).

4. f (x) = x2 + 4 (degree 2, even ⇒ into).

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5. f (x) = ex , originally into, becomes onto if the codomain is changed to (0, ∞).

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Algebraic and Transcendental Functions

Definition [Algebraic Function]. A function f (x) is called an algebraic function if it can be

expressed using a finite number of operations involving addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and roots of polynomials.

Example- Examples of algebraic functions:

• Polynomial function: f (x) = x2 + 3x − 5.

x2 +1
• Rational function: f (x) = x−3 .
√
• Root function (Radical): f (x) = x + 2.

Definition [Transcendental Function]. A function is called transcendental if it cannot be

expressed in terms of a polynomial equation using a finite number of algebraic operations.
Mathematically, transcendental functions do not satisfy any polynomial equation: P (f (x), x) = 0
CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 17

Example- Examples of transcendental functions:

• Exponential function: f (x) = ex .

• Logarithmic function: f (x) = log x.

• Trigonometric functions: f (x) = sin x, g(x) = cos x, h(x) = tan x.

• Inverse trigonometric functions: f (x) = arcsin x, g(x) = arccos x, h(x) = arctan x.

• Special functions: Gamma function Γ (x), Bessel function Jn (x), Error function erf(x).

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Explicit and Implicit Functions

Definition [Explicit Function]. A function is said to be explicit if it is expressed in terms of

the dependent variable as a function of the independent variable.
That is, a function is explicit if it can be written in the form:
y = f (x)

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where y is explicitly given as a function of x.

Example- Examples of explicit functions:

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1. y = 3x + 2

2. y = x2 − 4x + 5

3. y = sin x + 2x

Definition [Implicit Function]. A function is said to be implicit if the dependent and inde-
pendent variables appear in an equation but are not explicitly solved for one variable in terms
of the other.
That is, a function is implicit if it is given in the form:
F(x, y) = 0
where F is a function of both x and y, and solving for y explicitly may not be straightforward.

Example- Examples of implicit functions:

1. x2 y + xy 2 = 25

2. x3 + y 3 − 3xy = 0
CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 18

Even and Odd Functions

Definition [Even Function]. A function f (x) is called even if, f (−x) = f (x), ∀x ∈ Domain.
→ The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis.

Example- Examples of even functions:

1. f (x) = ex + e−x

2. f (x) = x2

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3. f (x) = cos x

Definition [Odd Function]. A function f (x) is called odd if, f (−x) = −f (x), ∀x ∈ Domain.
→ The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.

Example- Examples of odd functions:

1. f (x) = ex − e−x

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2. f (x) = x3

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3. f (x) = sin x

Important Properties of Even and Odd Functions

1. The sum, difference, and product of two even functions is even.

2. The sum and difference of two odd functions is odd.

3. The product of two odd functions is even.

4. The product of an even function and an odd function is odd.

5. Not every function is necessarily even or odd.

6. The sum of an even function and an odd function is neither even nor odd.

7. The only function that is both even and odd is the zero function f (x) = 0.
CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 19

Periodic Function

Definition [Periodic Function]. Let f : D → R be a function. It is called periodic if there

exists a positive constant T such that
f (x + T ) = f (x), ∀x ∈ D.
The smallest such T (if it exists) is called the fundamental period of the function.
Clearly, periodicity implies:
f (x) = f (x + T ) = f (x + 2T ) = f (x + 3T ) = . . .

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Example- Examples of periodic functions:

• sin x, cos x have period 2π.

• tan x, cot x have period π.

Standard Results on Periodic Functions

• sin x, cos x have period 2π.

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• tan x, cot x have period π.

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• sinn x, cosn x, secn x, cscn x (Period: 2π)

• tann x, cotn x (Period: π)

• The functions | sin x|, | cos x|, | tan x|, | cot x|, | sec x|, | csc x| have period π.

• The function f (x) = x − ⌊x⌋ (fractional part function) is periodic with period 1.

General Periodicity Rules

1. If f (x) is a periodic function with period T , then the following transformations preserve
periodicity with the same period T , provided they are well-defined:
p 1
c · f (x), n f (x), , f (x + c), f (x) ± c,
f (x)
where c is a constant.

2. If a function f (x) has period T , then the function transformed by an affine mapping:
f (ax + b)
T
has period |a|
, provided a , 0.
CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 20

3. If f1 (x), f2 (x), f3 (x) are periodic functions with respective periods T1 , T2 , T3 , then their lin-
ear combination:
h(x) = af1 (x) ± bf2 (x) ± cf3 (x)
is periodic with a period that is either lcm(T1 , T2 , T3 ) or a divisor of lcm(T1 , T2 , T3 ), depend-
ing on the specific properties of the functions involved.

Composite Function

Definition [Composite Function]. Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two functions. The com-

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posite function of f and g, denoted as g ◦ f : A → C, is defined as:
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)), ∀x ∈ A.
This means that for each input x ∈ A, we first apply f to get f (x) ∈ B, and then apply g to obtain
g(f (x)) ∈ C.

Example- Consider the functions:

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f (x) = x2 , g(x) = x + 1.
The composition (g ◦ f )(x) is:

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g(f (x)) = g(x2 ) = x2 + 1.
Similarly, the reverse composition (f ◦ g)(x) is:
f (g(x)) = f (x + 1) = (x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1.
Clearly, g ◦ f , f ◦ g, illustrating the **non-commutativity** of function composition.

Properties of Composite Functions

1. Even and Odd Function Compositions

• If f is even and g is even, then g ◦ f is even.

• If f is odd and g is odd, then g ◦ f is odd.

• If f is even and g is odd, then g ◦ f is even.

• If f is odd and g is even, then g ◦ f is even.

Example- Case 1: Both f and g are even

CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 21

Let f (x) = x2 and g(x) = cos x, both of which are even functions.
g(f (x)) = cos(f (x)) = cos(x2 ).
Since cos(x2 ) = cos((−x)2 ), we conclude that g ◦ f is also even.

Example- Case 2: Both f and g are odd

Let f (x) = x3 and g(x) = sin x, both of which are odd functions.
g(f (x)) = sin(f (x)) = sin(x3 ).
Since sin(−x3 ) = − sin(x3 ), we conclude that g ◦ f is odd.

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Example- Case 3: f is even and g is odd
Let f (x) = x2 (even) and g(x) = sin x (odd). Then:
g(f (x)) = sin(x2 ).
Since sin(x2 ) = sin((−x)2 ), this shows that g ◦ f is even.

Example- Case 4: f is odd and g is even

Let f (x) = x3 (odd) and g(x) = x2 (even). Then:

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g(f (x)) = (x3 )2 = x6 .
Since x6 = (−x)6 , we conclude that g ◦ f is even.

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2. Non-Commutativity
f ◦g , g ◦f (Composition is not necessarily commutative).

Example- Let f (x) = x + 1 and g(x) = x2 . Then:

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (x2 ) = x2 + 1, (g ◦ f )(x) = g(x + 1) = (x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1.
Since f ◦ g , g ◦ f , this confirms that function composition is generally non-commutative.

3. Associativity
(f ◦ g) ◦ h = f ◦ (g ◦ h).

Example- Consider the functions:

f (x) = 2x, g(x) = x + 1, h(x) = x2 .
We first compute g ◦ h:
(g ◦ h)(x) = g(x2 ) = x2 + 1.
CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 22

Now, applying f to this result:

(f ◦ (g ◦ h))(x) = f (x2 + 1) = 2(x2 + 1) = 2x2 + 2.
Alternatively, computing (f ◦ g) first:
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (x + 1) = 2(x + 1) = 2x + 2.
Then applying h:
((f ◦ g) ◦ h)(x) = (2x + 2)2 = 4x2 + 8x + 4.
Since the two results match, this illustrates the **associativity** of function composition.

4. Identity and Inverse Functions

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If f : A → B is a bijection, and g : B → A is its inverse, then:
f ◦ g = IB , g ◦ f = IA ,
where IA and IB are the identity functions on A and B, respectively.

x−3
Example- Consider f (x) = 2x + 3. The inverse function is f −1 (x) = 2 . Then:
x−3
(f ◦ f −1 )(x) = 2 · + 3 = x.

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2
This verifies that f ◦ f −1 is the identity function.

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5. Composition of Bijections
If f : A → B and g : B → C are both bijections, then their composition g ◦ f : A → C is also
a bijection, and:
(g ◦ f )−1 = f −1 ◦ g −1 .

Example- Let f (x) = 3x + 5 and g(x) = x − 2. Their inverses are:

x−5
f −1 (x) = , g −1 (x) = x + 2.
3
Then:
x+2−5 x−3
(g ◦ f )−1 (x) = f −1 ◦ g −1 (x) = f −1 (x + 2) = = .
3 3

6. Condition for Commutativity in Special Cases

In general, f ◦ g , g ◦ f , but if f ◦ g = g ◦ f , then one of the following holds:
f −1 = g or g −1 = f .
CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 23

Inverse Function

Definition [Inverse Function]. Let f : A → B be a function. A function g : B → A is called the

inverse function of f if it satisfies:
f (g(y)) = y, ∀y ∈ B, and g(f (x)) = x, ∀x ∈ A.
The inverse function of f is denoted by f −1 .

Properties of Inverse Functions

1. Existence Condition: A function f has an inverse if and only if it is bijective (both one-

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one and onto).

2. Monotonicity: If f is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing, then it is invertible.

3. Domain-Range Swap: If f : A → B, then its inverse is given by:

f −1 : B → A.

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4. Double Inversion: If f and g are inverse functions, then:
(f −1 )−1 = f .

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Example- Finding the inverse of a function
Consider f (x) = 2x + 3. To find its inverse, solve for x in terms of y:
y = 2x + 3.
Solving for x:
y −3
x= .
2
So, the inverse function is:
x−3
f −1 (x) = .
2
Example- Inverse of f (x) = x2 on different domains
The function f (x) = x2 is not one-one on R, so it does not have an inverse over the entire real
line. However, if we restrict its domain to x ≥ 0, the function is one-one, and its inverse is:
√
f −1 (x) = x.
CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 24

Inverse Image of a Set

Definition [Inverse Image of a Set]. Let f : A → B be a function, and let S ⊆ B. The inverse
image (also called the preimage) of S under f is defined as:
f −1 (S) = {x ∈ A | f (x) ∈ S}.
That is, f −1 (S) consists of all elements in A whose images under f belong to S.
The inverse image satisfies the following properties for any subsets S1 , S2 ⊆ B:
f −1 (S1 ∪ S2 ) = f −1 (S1 ) ∪ f −1 (S2 ),

f −1 (S1 ∩ S2 ) = f −1 (S1 ) ∩ f −1 (S2 ).

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Example- Consider the function f : R≥0 → R defined by f (x) = x2 . Let S = [1, 4]. Then the
inverse image of S is given by:
f −1 (S) = [1, 2] ∪ [−2, −1].
This means that any x in the interval [1, 2] ∪ [−2, −1] satisfies f (x) ∈ S.

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Remark : The function f does not need to be one-one (injective) or onto (surjective) for the
inverse image to be defined. The inverse image is simply the set of all elements in the domain
that map to a given subset in the codomain.

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Consider the function g : R → R defined by g(x) = x2 , which is not one-one. Let B = {4}. The
inverse image is:g −1 (B) = {−2, 2}.
Here, both x = −2 and x = 2 satisfy g(x) = 4, showing that the function is not injective, yet the
inverse image is well-defined.
Function of Union and Intersection
For any subsets T1 , T2 ⊆ A, the function f satisfies the following properties:
f (T1 ∪ T2 ) = f (T1 ) ∪ f (T2 ),

f (T1 ∩ T2 ) ⊆ f (T1 ) ∩ f (T2 ),

where equality in the second property holds if f is one-one (injective).
Similarly, for inverse images, we have:
f −1 (S1 ∪ S2 ) = f −1 (S1 ) ∪ f −1 (S2 ),

f −1 (S1 ∩ S2 ) = f −1 (S1 ) ∩ f −1 (S2 ).

These properties hold for any function f , regardless of whether it is injective or surjective.
CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 25

Some Important Functions

1. Constant Function
Definition. A function f : A → B is called a 3 y
constant function over A if:
f (x) = c, ∀x ∈ A, where c is a constant. 2

Domain: A
1
Range: {c}
Properties: The graph of a constant function is x

A
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
a horizontal line and it is neither one-one (in-
jective) nor onto (surjective). y=c −1

2. Identity Function

Definition. The identity function is defined as: y

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f (x) = x, ∀x ∈ R. 2

Domain: R
x

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Range: R −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
Properties: The graph is a straight line passing
through the origin; it is both one-one (injective) −2
and onto (surjective), and it is an odd function.
y=x

3. Modulus Function
Definition. The modulus function is defined 3 y
as: 
2

x,


 x ≥ 0,
f (x) = |x| = 

−x, x < 0.


1
Domain: R
Range: [0, ∞) x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
Properties: It is an even function, although it is
neither injective nor surjective. y = |x| −1
CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 26

4. Greatest Integer Function (Floor Function)

Definition: The greatest integer function (floor y
function) is given by: 2
f (x) = ⌊x⌋ = greatest integer ≤ x.
Domain: R x
Range: Z −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
Properties: The graph is a step function. and
the function has jump discontinuities at all in- −2

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teger points. y = ⌊x⌋

5. Signum Function
Definition: The signum function is defined as:

 2 y



1, x > 0,



f (x) = 

0, x = 0, 1

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




−1, x < 0.


x
Domain: R
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

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Range: {−1, 0, 1}
−1
Properties: The function is discontinuous at
x = 0 due to the abrupt change in value and it is
y = sgn(x) −2
an odd function.

7. Fractional Part Function

1 y
Definition: The fractional part function is
given by: 0.8
f (x) = x − ⌊x⌋.
0.6
Domain: R
Range: [0, 1) 0.4
Properties: The graph is periodic with period 1
0.2
and this function is discontinuous at every in-
y = x − ⌊x⌋ x
teger, where it jumps from 1 to 0.
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 27

2.3 Principle of Mathematical Induction

Mathematical Induction is a proof technique used to establish the validity of statements in-
volving natural numbers. It is a fundamental method in mathematics that follows a structured
approach.

Well-Ordering Property of N : Every nonempty subset of N has a least element. If S is a

nonempty subset of N, then there exists m ∈ S such that m ≤ k for all k ∈ S.

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Principle of Mathematical Induction

Theorem2.1. Let S be a subset of N satisfying:

1. 1 ∈ S.

2. If k ∈ S, then k + 1 ∈ S.

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Then, S = N.

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Proof. Assume S , N.

• Let m be the smallest element in N \ S (by the well-ordering principle).

• Since 1 ∈ S, we get m > 1, meaning m − 1 ∈ S.

• By assumption (2), m should be in S, contradicting the choice of m.

• Hence, S = N.

Principle of Mathematical Induction : Let n0 ∈ N, and let P (n) be a statement for n ≥ n0 . If:

1. P (n0 ) is true.

2. P (k) being true implies P (k + 1) is true for all k ≥ n0 .

Then, P (n) is true for all n ≥ n0 .

CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 28

Example- Here are a few examples to understand the application of Mathematical Induction:

1. Sum of first n natural numbers:

n(n + 1)
Sn = 1 + 2 + · · · + n =
2

Proof. Base Case : For n = 1,

1(1 + 1)
S1 = 1 = = 1.
2
Hence, the formula holds for n = 1.

A
Inductive Step : Assume that for some k ∈ N, the formula holds:
k(k + 1)
Sk = 1 + 2 + · · · + k = .
2
We must prove that it holds for k + 1:
Sk+1 = Sk + (k + 1).
Using the induction hypothesis:

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k(k + 1)
Sk+1 = + (k + 1).
2
Simplifying:
k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1) (k + 1)(k + 2)

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Sk+1 = = .
2 2
Thus, the formula holds for k + 1, completing the induction proof.

2. Sum of squares of first n natural numbers:

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + · · · + n2 = .
6
3. Sum of cubes of first n natural numbers: !2
n(n + 1)
13 + 23 + · · · + n3 = .
2
4. Factorization Property: If a and b are real numbers, then a − b is a factor of an − bn for all
n ∈ N. This follows from:
an − bn = (a − b)(an−1 + an−2 b + · · · + bn−1 ).

5. Divisibility Examples: Prove that 11n − 7n is divisible by 4 for all n ∈ N.

Proof. Base Case : For n = 1,

111 − 71 = 11 − 7 = 4,
CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS 29

which is clearly divisible by 4.

Inductive Step : Assume that for some k ∈ N,

11k − 7k is divisible by 4.
That is, 11k − 7k = 4m for some integer m.

Consider 11k+1 − 7k+1 :

11k+1 − 7k+1 = 11 · 11k − 7 · 7k .
Using the modulo property,
11 ≡ 3 (mod 4), 7≡3 (mod 4).

A
Thus,
11k+1 ≡ 3k+1 (mod 4), 7k+1 ≡ 3k+1 (mod 4).
Since 3n ≡ (−1)n (mod 4), we have:
11k+1 − 7k+1 ≡ (−1)k+1 − (−1)k+1 ≡ 0 (mod 4).
Hence, 11k+1 − 7k+1 is divisible by 4, completing the induction.

M
6. Geometric Sum Formula: The sum of a geometric series is given by:
1 − r n+1
1 + r + r2 + · · · + rn = , for r , 1.

I
1−r
7. Strong Induction Example: Using strong induction, we can prove inequalities such as:
2n ≥ (n + 1)! for sufficiently large n.