Kingdom Fungi

• The characteristics
of fungi
• The evolution of
the fungi
• Fungal
classification
• Fungal life cycles
 Mycology

 Mycology is derived from two Latin words ‘Myco’

fungus and ‘logos’ = Logy=Study

 The branch of biological science which deals with study of

fungi is called Mycology.

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 Fungi

According to Alexopolous (1962)

“nucleated, achlorophyllus organisms which typically,
and whose usually, filamentous branched somatic
structures are surrounded by cell wall” composed of
cellulose or chitin or both. Included slime molds.

Most mycologists:
Fungi are eukaryotic, achlorophyllus, nucleated,
branched, unicellular or multicellular thallophytic
microorganisms that may reproduce by the division of
vegetative cells, well defined asexual and sexual spores
and which are surrounded by cell walls composed of
chitin. 3
Characteristics of fungi

•Eukarotic
•Non-vascular organism
•Reproduce by means of spores, usually wind disseminated
•Both sexual (meiotic) and asexual (mitotic) spores may be
produced, depending on the species and conditions.
•Typically non motile, although a few (e.g. Chytrids) have a motile
phase.
•Like plants, fungi have alteration of generations.

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 More fungi characteristics 2

•Vegetative body may be unicellular (yeasts) or composed of

microscopic thread called hyphae
•Cell walls similar in structure to plants but differ in chemical
composition- fungi cell walls are composed of mostly of chitin-
plant cell walls are composed mostly of cellulose (plus lignin in
secondary walls)
•Cytoplasmic ultrastructure broadly similar to plants cells, but
differ significantly in kinds of organelles and their structure.

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More fungi characteristics 3

 Fungi are heterotrophic (“other feeding” must feed on preformed

organic material), not autotrophic (“self feeding” make their own
food by photosynthesis)

 Unlike animals (also heterotrophic), which ingest then digest,

fungi digest then ingest

 Fungi produce exoenzymes to accomplish food

 Most fungi store their food as glycogen (like animals) plants

store food as starch

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 The Characteristics of Fungi
• Heterotrophy - 'other food'
* Saprophytes or saprobes - feed on dead
tissues or organic waste (decomposers)
* Symbionts - mutually beneficial
relationship between a fungus and
another organism
* Parasites - feeding on living tissue of a
host.
• Parasites that cause disease are called
pathogens.
 Hyphal growth
• Hyphae grow from their tips
• Mycelium = extensive, feeding web of hyphae
• Mycelia are the ecologically active bodies of
fungi

This wall is rigid Only the tip wall is plastic and stretches
Heterotrophic by Absorption
• Fungi get carbon from organic sources
• Hyphal tips release enzymes
• Enzymatic breakdown of substrate
• Products diffuse back into hyphae

Nucleus hangs back

and “directs”

Product diffuses back

into hypha and is used
Modifications of hyphae
 Parasites
• Use organic material from living organisms,
harming them in some way
• Range of host: from single celled diatoms to
fungi to plant to animals to humans
 Saprophytes
• Use non-living organic material
• Important scavengers in ecosystems
• Along with bacteria, fungi are important in
recycling carbon, nitrogen and essential
mineral nutrients
 Mutualists (Symbionts)
• Fungi have a mutualistically beneficial relationship
with other living organisms
• Mycorrhizae: associations of fungi with plants roots
• Lichens: associations of fungi with algae or
cyanobacteria
• Mutualists are very important and very common in nature
• More than 90% of plants in nature have a fungus associated with their roots as mycorrhizae
• And lichens are everywhere
 Commensalism
• One organism uses another to get better position in the
environment
• Neither organism is harmed-there is usually no
physilogical interaction between the two organisms
• Most often for photosynthesis advantages in shaded areas-
very common in rain forests
• May also be for reproductive advantages- some fungi
climb’ up trees and vines (while not gaining nutrition from
them) in order to release their spores from as high a perch
as possible
Fungi as Saprobes and
Decomposers
Fungi as Symbionts (Mutualism)
 Mycorrhizae

• Myco=fungus rhiza=root
• More than 90% of plants in nature have a
Mycorrhizal symbionts
• Ectomycorrhizae and
Endomycorrhizae
 Mycorrhizae
• “Fungus roots”
• Mutualism between:
* Fungus (nutrient & water uptake for plant)
* Plant (carbohydrate for fungus)
• Several kinds
* Zygomycota – hyphae invade root cells
* Ascomycota & Basidiomycota – hyphae invade root but
don’t penetrate cells

• Extremely important ecological role of fungi!

 Types of Mycorrhizae
• Ectomycorrhizae– fungus forms a sheath
outside the root
• Endomycorrhizae –vasicular-arbuscular
mycorrhizae (VAM), no sheath
• Orchid mycorrhizae are a special type
 Ectomycorhizae
• Fungus forms a sheath around the root, with
hyphae emanating through the soil, greatly
increasing the surface area
• Fungus penetrates between cells of the
cortex to facilitate nutrient exchange
• Fungus is almost always a Basidiomycota,
although a few are Ascomycota species
 Endomycorrhizae
• Also called vesicular-arbuscular
mycorrhizae
• Fungus does not form a sheath round the
roots-fungus penetrates the cortical cells,
but does not penetrate the cell membrane
• Fungus is a member of Zygomycota
• More common than ectomycorrhizae
“Ecto”mycorrhizae

Russula
mushroom
mycorrhizas on
Western
Hemlock root
Mycorrhiza cross sections

Fungal hyphae
around root and
between cells
 Lichens
• Symbiotic relationship
between a fungus and
an alga or
cyanobacterium-
usually neither can
survive on its own
• Most of the fungi
involved are
Ascomycota– a few
are Basidiomycota
 The Characteristics of Fungi
• Body form
* unicellular
* filamentous (tube-like
strands called hypha
(singular) or hyphae
(plural)
* mycelium = aggregate
of hyphae
* sclerotium = hardened
mass of mycelium that
generally serves as an
overwintering stage.
* multicellular, such as
mycelial cords,
rhizomorphs, and fruit
bodies (mushrooms)
fruiting bodies

both are
composed
of hyphae

mycelium
 Hyphae

• Tubular
• Hard wall of chitin
• Crosswalls may
form compartments
(± cells)
• Multinucleate
• Grow at tips
 Reproduce by spores
• Spores are reproductive cells
* Sexual (meiotic in origin)
* Asexual (mitotic in origin)
• Formed:
* Directly on hyphae
* Inside sporangia
* Fruiting bodies

Penicillium hyphae
with conidia
Pilobolus sporangia
Amanita fruiting body
 Hyphal growth from spore

germinating
spore
mycelium

• Mycelia have a huge surface area

Generalized Life Cycle of a Fungus
 asci
basidia
zygosporangia

motile spores Classification

& Phylogeny
 Chytridiomycota – “chytrids”
• Simple fungi
• Produce motile spores -
zoospores
• Mostly saprobes and
parasites in aquatic habitats
• Could just as well be
Protists Chytridium growing on spores

Chytriomyces growing on pine pollen

 Zygomycota – “zygote fungi”

• Sexual Reproduction - zygosporangia

• Asexual reprod. – common (sporangia
– bags of asexual spores)
• Hyphae have no cross walls
• Grow rapidly
• Decomposers, pathogens, and some
form mycorrhizal associations with
plants

Rhizopus on strawberries
 Sexual zygsporangium
with one zygospore

Asexual sporangium
with spores inside

Life cycle of Rhizopus

 Ascomycota – “sac fungi”

• Sexual Reproduction – asci

(sing. = ascus)
• Asex. Reprod. – common
• Cup fungi, morels, truffles
• Important plant parasites &
saprobes
• Yeast - Saccharomyces
• Decomposers, pathogens,
and found in most lichens
A cluster of asci with spores inside
Sac fungi diversity
 Basidiomycota – “club fungi”
• Sexual Reproduction – basidia
• Asexual reprod – not so
common
• Long-lived dikaryotic mycelia
• Rusts & smuts –plant parasites
• Mushrooms, polypores,
puffballs, boletes, bird’s nest
fungi
• Enzymes decompose wood,
leaves, and other organic
materials
• Decomposers, pathogens, and
some form mycorrhizal
associations with plants SEM of basidia and spores
 Hyphal fusion mycelium and fruiting
haploid of haploid body are dikaryotic
mycelium mycelia

Mushroom
Life Cycle
N 2N N+N

Meiosis
Nuclear
fusion in
basidium
young basidia - the
only diploid cells
 Some fungi have more than
one scientific name – Why?
• Teleomorph: the sexual reproductive stage
(morph), typically a fruiting body (e.g., Morchella
esculenta, Agaricus brunescens).
• Anamorph: an asexual reproductive stage
(morph), often mold-like (e.g. Aspergillus flavus,
Fusarium solani). When a single fungus produces
multiple morphologically distinct anamorphs, they
are called synanamorphs.
• Holomorph: the whole fungus, including all
anamorphs and the teleomorph.
Deuteromycota – Form Phylum
“Imperfect Fungi”
• Fungi that seldom or never reproduce
sexually.
• Asexual reproduction by vegetative growth
and production of asexual spores common.
 Yeasts
• Single celled fungi
• Adapted to liquids
* Plant saps
* Water films
* Moist animal tissues

Candida
Saccharomyces
 Molds
• Rapidly growth
• Asexual spores
• Many human importances
* Food spoilage
* Food products
* Antibiotics, etc.

Noble Rot - Botrytis

Lack of Chlorophyll profoundly affects
the lifestyle of fungi:

• Not dependent on light

• Can occupy dark habitats
• Can grow in any direction
• Can invade the interior of the substrate with
absorptive filaments
HUMAN-FUNGUS INTERACTIONS

• Beneficial Effects of Fungi

* Decomposition - nutrient and carbon recycling.
* Biosynthetic factories. Can be used to produce drugs,
antibiotics, alcohol, acids, food (e.g., fermented
products, mushrooms).
* Model organisms for biochemical and genetic studies.
* Yeasts- baking and brewing
* Steroids and hormones- e.g. the pill
* Certain “stinky” cheeses- e.g. blue cheese, roquefort
and camembert
• Harmful Effects of Fungi
* Destruction of food, lumber, paper, and cloth.
* Animal and human diseases, including allergies.
* Toxins produced by poisonous mushrooms and within
food (e.g., grain, cheese, etc.).
* Plant diseases.
* Cause rot and contamination of foods
* Can destroy almost every kind of manufactured good-
with the exception of plastics and some pesticides
 As a group, fungi are very
successful organisms
• Genetic plasticity- and physiological versatility
• Most produce enormous numbers of spores that
are effectively spread over a wide area
• Many produce both asexual (mitotic) and sexual
(meiotic) spores
• Spores can remain dormant until conditions
become favorable- sometimes years
 Fungi are important
experimental organisms
• Easily cultured, occupy little space, multiply rapidly, short
life cycle.
• Study metabolite pathways
• Study growth, development and differentiation
• Mechanisms of cell division and development
• Microbial assays of vitamins and amino acids
• Genetics- e.g. “one gene one enzyme’ in Neurospora won
Beadle and Tatum the Nobel prize