Cram Packet a la Thompson aka THE BEAST

(2021/22)
Scientific Foundations of ● CORRELATION:
Psych (10-14%) Adv: identify relationship between two
variables Disadv: No cause and effect
● Psychology is derived from physiology (CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL
(biology) and philosophy CAUSATION)
o Positive Correlation – variables
● EARLY APPROACHES
increase & decrease together
o Structuralism – used INTROSPECTION o Negative Correlation – as one
(act of looking inward to examine variable increases the other decreases
mental experience) to determine the ▪ Control Group: placebo, baseline o The stronger the # the stronger the
underlying STRUCTURES of the mind relationship REGARDLESS of the
o Functionalism – need to analyze the (part of the IV); can only have 1
pos/neg sign. Cannot be < or > than 1.
PURPOSE of behavior ▪ Placebo Effect: show behaviors o Stronger relationships = tighter
● APPROACHES KEY WORDS associated with the exp. group when clusters on graph
o Psychoanalytic/dynamic – unconscious, having received placebo
childhood o Dependent Variable: measured
o Behavioral – learned, reinforced variable (is DEPENDENT on the
o Humanistic – free will, choice, ideal, independent variable)
actualization ▪ Double-Blind: Exp. where neither the
o Cognitive – Perceptions, thoughts participant or the experimenter are ▪ 3rd variable problem (lurking
o Evolutionary – Genes aware of which condition people are
o Biological – Brain, NTs assigned to (drug studies) variable)– diff. variable is responsible
o Sociocultural – society for relationship (breast implants &
▪ Single-Blind: only participant blind – suicide)
o Biopsychosocial – combo of above
used if experimenter can’t be blind ▪ Illusory correlation – belief of
● PEOPLE: (gender, age, etc)
o Quasi-experimental design – correlation that doesn’t exist (old man
o Mary Calkins: First Fem. Pres. of APA
predicts rain from arthritis)
o Margaret Floy Washburn–1st fem. PhD random assignment to conditions
o Charles Darwin: Natural selection & is impossible (can’t randomly ● SURVEYS: usually turned into correlation.
evolution assign gender) Subject to:
o Dorothea Dix: Reformed mental ● Operational Definition:Often
clear, precise, o Social desirability – ppl lie to look
institutions in U.S. confused good
typically quantifiable definition of your
o Stanley Hall: 1st pres. of APA1st journal o Wording effects – how you frame
variables – allows replication
o William James: Father of American the question can impact your
2 Psychology – functionalist ● Confound: error/ flaw in study answers (see Loftus in Cognition)
o Wilhelm Wundt: Father of Modern
● Random Assignment: assigns ● NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION:
Psychology – structuralist
participants to either control or Adv: real world validity (observe people
● RANDOM TERMS experimental group at random –increase in their own setting) Disadv: No cause
o Basic research – purpose is to increase chance of equal representation among and effect
knowledge (rats) groups (spreads the lefties across both ● CASE STUDY:
o Applied research – purpose is to help groups)
people Adv. Studies ONE person (usually) in
● Random Sample (selection): method for great detail – lots
o Psychologist – research or counseling –
choosing participants for your study – of info Disadv: No
MS or PhD
everyone has a chance to take part, cause and effect
o Psychiatrist – prescribe medications and
diagnose – M.D. increases generalizability ● DESCRIPTIVE
Research Design o Assignment and sampling can be
done via names in a hat, computer STATS:shape of
● EXPERIMENT : generation, etc the data
o Measures of
Adv: researcher controls variables to ● Representative Sample: Sample mimics Central
establish cause and effect Disadv:
the general pop. (ethnic, gender, age) Tendency:
difficult to generalize
o Independent Variable: purposefully ● Stratified Sampling: if you need to ▪M
altered by researcher to look for effect ensure a rep. sample you can separate e
▪ Experimental Group: received the your population before you sample (ex. a
make sure get 80% women, 20% men) n
treatment (part of the IV); can have
:
multiple exp, groups
 Average (use in normal o Vesicles: sacs inside terminal contain
● NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NT):
distribution) NTs (rhymes w/?)
o Synapse: gap b/w neurons Chemicals released in synaptic gap,
▪ Median: Middle # (use in skewed received by neurons
distribution) ● Action Potential: movement of Na and K o GABA: Major inhibitory NT
▪ Mode: occurs most often ions across membrane sends an electrical o GlutamatE: Major Excitatory NT
charge down the axon (more Na outside – (get excited when seeing your mates!
● Skews – created by outlers like a salty banana) o Dopamine: Reward & movement
o Neg skew = left skew o All or none law: stimulus must trigger o Serotonin: Moods and emotion
o the AP past its threshold, but does not o Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory
increase the intensity of the response o Epinephrine & Norepinephrine:
Pos
sympathetic NS arousal
o Endorphins: pain control
o Oxytocin: love and bonding
● Agonist: drug that mimics a NT

● Antagonist: drug that blocks a NT

● Reuptake: Unused NTs are taken back

up into the sending neuron. SSRIs
(selective serotonin reuptake
skew = right skew (flush the toilet) inhibitors) block reuptake – treatment
o Refractory period: neuron must rest for depression
and reset before it can send another ● AREAS OF THE BRAIN:
AP (toilet resets
●Hindbrain: oldest part of the brain
● Sensory neurons – receive sense signals
o Cerebellum – movement/balance
● Afferent neurons brainAccepts signals (walking a tightrope balancing a bell)
● INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: o Medulla – vital organs (HR, BP)
establishes significance (meaningfulness) ● Motor neurons – signals to move o Pons – bridge b/w regions – basic
functions
● STATISTICAL SIGNIFANCE = results ● Efferent neurons – signal Exits brain
●Midbrain
not due to chance, exp.manipulation
● Interneurons – cells in spinal cord o Reticular formation: alertness
caused the difference in means
responsible for reflex loop ●Forebrain: higher thought processes
● ETHICAL GUIDELINES (IRB
● CENTRAL NS: Brain and spinal cord o Limbic System
APPROVAL NEEDED FOR PPL)
o Confidentiality: names kept secret ● PERIPHERAL NS: Rest of the NS ▪ Amygdala: emotions, fear (Amy, da!
o Informed Consent: must agree to be
o Somatic NS: Voluntary movement You’re so emotional!)
part of study
o Debriefing: must be told the true o Autonomic NS: Involuntary (heart, ▪ Hippocampus: memory (if you saw a
purpose of the study (done after for lungs, etc)
hippo on campus you’d remember it!)
deception) ▪ Sympathetic NS: Arouses the body for
o Deception must be warranted ▪ Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasure
fight/flight (generally activates –
o No harm– mental/physical sympathetic to you getting eaten by a center, eating behaviors – link to
endocrine system
Biological Basis tiger helps you run away)
o Thalamus: relay center for all but smell
(8-10%) Must include NS:
▪ Parasympathetic bio established (you MUST (thalaMUST) use your
*NT = neurotransmitter, AP = action homeostasis after aincrease
response (HR /
sympathetic thalamus, unless its MUSTY – smell)
potential, NS = nervous system response (generally inhibits) o Cerebral
Cortex: outer
● NEURON: Basic cell of the NS portion of the
o Dendrites: Receive incoming NTs brain – higher
o Soma: Cell body (includes nucleus) order thought
o Axon: AP travels down this processes
o Myelin Sheath: speeds up AP down
axon, protects axon, MS destroys this
o Terminals: release NTs – send signal
onto next neuron
 o Pituitary Gland: Controlled by o Narcolepsy: fall asleep out of nowhere
▪ Occipital Lobe: vision – mom’s eyes!
hypothalamus. release growth hormones (due to deficiency in orexin)
▪ Frontal Lobe: decision making, o Adrenal Glands: related to sympathetic o Sleep Apnea: stop breathing suddenly
planning, judgment, movement, NS: releases adrenaline while asleep (due to obesity usually)
personality ● BRAIN IMAGING: ●DREAM THEORIES:
▪ Parietal Lobe: sensations o EEG: brain activity – not specific o Freud’s Unconscious Wish
o XRAY: not useful, doesn’t show tissues Fulfillment: Dreaming is gratification
▪ Temporal Lobe: hearing and face o CT / MRI: shows structures (tumors) of unconscious desires and needs
recognition o PET: glucose shows brain activity (when ▪ Latent Content: hidden meaning
▪ Somatosensory Cortex: map of our in doubt pick this one)
o fMRI: oxygen shows activity: real time ▪ Manifest Content: obvious storyline
touch receptors –in parietal lobe *can o lesion – destruction of brain tissue
only mention touch in FRQ ●Activation Synthesis: Brain produces
● STATES of CONSCIOUSNESS:
▪ Motor Cortex: map of our motor random bursts of energy – stimulating
o Higher-Level: controlled processes – lodged memories in limbic sys. Dreams
receptors – located in frontal lobe
totally aware start random then develop meaning
o Left hemisphere only – damage results
o Lower-Level: automatic processing
in aphasia (damaged speech) ●PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS:
(daydreaming, phone numbers)
▪ Broca’s Area: Inability to produce o Altered States: produced through drugs, o Triggers dopamine release in the
speech (Broca – Broken speech) fatigue, hypnosis brain
o Subconscious: Sleeping and dreaming o Depressants: Alcohol, barbiturates,
▪ Wernicke’s Area: can’t comprehend o No awareness: Knocked out tranquilizers, opiates (narcotics)
speech (Wernicke’s what?) ▪ Decrease sympathetic NS activation,
o Corpus Callosum: bundle of nerves that
connects the 2 hemispheres – sometimes highly addictive
severed in patients with severe seizures ●SLEEP: o Stimulants: Amphetamines, Cocaine,
– leads to “split-brain patients” Beta Waves: awake (you betta be awake for MDMA (ecstasy), Caffeine, Nicotine
the exam) ▪ Increase sympathetic NS activation,
▪ Split-brain experiments: done by Sperry
Alpha Waves: high amp., drowsy
highly addictive
NREM (non REM) stages-
o Hallucinogens: LSD, Marijuana
Stage 1: light sleep
Stage 2: bursts of sleep spindles ▪ Causes hallucinations, less addictive
Stage 3 Delta waves: Deep sleep o Tolerance: Needing more of a drug to
Rapid Eye Movement (REM): dreaming, achieve the same effects
cognitive processing o Dependence: Become addicted to the
& Gazzaniga. Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM drug – must have it to avoid
▪ Image shown to R eye processed withdrawal symptoms
in L hemi – patient can say what o Withdrawal: Psychological and
they saw; image shown to L eye physiological symptoms
processed in R hemi, can’t say associated with sudden stoppage.
what was seen Unpleasant – can kill you.
●BRAIN PLASTICITY: Brain can Sensation &
“heal” itself (brain is malleable)
occurs inb/w each cycle. REM lasts Perception
longer throughout the night
● NATURE VS. NURTURE: ANSWER (6 – 8%)
●CIRCADIAN RHYTHM: 24 hour
IS BOTH ● ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD: detection of
biological clock of Body temp & sleep
o Twin Studies:
o Controlled by the Suprachiasmatic signal 50% of time (is it there)
▪ Identical twins – Monozygotic (MZ) nucleus (SCN) in the brain ● DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD (also
o Explains jet lag
▪ Fraternal twins – Dizygotics (DZ) called a just noticeable difference (JND)
●SLEEP DISORDERS and follows WEBER’S LAW: two
o Genetics: MZ twins will have a higher
o Insomnia: Inability to fall asleep (due stimuli must differ by a constant
percentage of also developing a disease
to stress/anxiety) minimum proportion. (Can you tell a
o Environment: MZ twins raised in
o Sleep walking/talking: (due to fatigue, change (stronger / weaker?)
different environments show differences
drugs, alcohol) – NOT during REM ● SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY:
● ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: sends o Night terrors: extreme nightmares –
detection depends on experience,
hormones throughout the body NOT in REM sleep – typical in expectations, alertness, etc. (more likely
children
 to notice a door slam outside when o Outer Ear: pinna (ear), auditory canal
● Constancies: recognize that objects do
waiting on the pizza guy) o Middle Ear: ear drum, HAS (bones
not physically change despite changes in vibrate to send signal)
● Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensory input (size, shape, brightness) o Inner Ear: cochlea – like COCHELLA
sensitivity as a result of constant
● Phi Phenomenon: adjacent lights blink (sounds 1st processed here); basilar
stimulation (can you feel your
on/off in succession – looks like membrane is IN the cochlea
underwear?)
movement (traffic signs with arrows) ● THEORIES OF HEARING: both occur
●Sensory Habituation: diminished
● Stroboscopic movement: motion in the cochlea
sensitivity due to regular exposure (do
produced by a rapid succession of slightly o Place theory – location where hair cells
you notice the train?)
varying images (animations) bends determines sound (high pitches)
● Perceptual Set: tendency to see o Frequency theory – rate at which action
● MONOCULAR CUES (how we form a potentials are sent determines sound
something as part of a group – speeds up
signal processing 3D image from a 2D image) (low pitches)
o Interposition: overlapping images appear
● COMMON
closer
● o Relative Size: 2 objects that are usually ILLUSIONS:
similar in size, the smaller one is further O Muller-lyer – doesn’t
away work on cultures w/o
Inattentional Blindness: failure to notice
o Linear exposure to modern
something added b/c you’re so focused on
Perspective: architecture
another task (gorilla video)
parallel lines O Ponzo – happens due to
● Change Blindness: failure to notice a converge with linear perspective
change in the scene (door study) distance O McGurk effect – see mouth saying ba or
(think railroad fa overrides what you actually hear (va)
● Cocktail party effect: notice your name
tracks) ● Common
OTHER SENSES:
across the room when its spoken, when FRQ terms – don’t mix the terms
o Relative
you weren’t previously paying attention Clarity: hazy o Touch: Mechanoreceptors 🡪 spinal cord
● VISUAL SYSTEM: objects appear further away
o Texture Gradient: coarser objects are 🡪 thalamus 🡪 somatosensory cortex
o Cornea – protects the eye
closer o Vestibular: Sense of balance
o Pupil/iris – controls light entering eye
o Relative Height: things higher in our (semicircular canals in the inner ear
o Lens – focuses light on retina
field of vision look further away effect this)
o Retina – contains rods and cones
o Motion Parallax: closer objects appear to o Kinesthetic (proprioception): Sense of
o Fovea–area of best vision(cones here)
move faster than objects that are farther body position (neurons in ligaments &
o Rods – black/white, dim light body tell you this)
o Cones – color, bright light (red, green, blue) ● BINOCULAR CUES: (how both eyes
o Pain (nociception): Gate-control theory:
o Bipolar cells – connect rods/cones and make up a 3D image) we have a “gate” to control how much
ganglion cells Retinal Disparity: Image is cast slightly pain is experienced
o Ganglion – create optic nerve different on each retina, location of o Taste (gustation): 5 taste receptors:
o Blind spot – occurs where the optic image helps us determine depth bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory)
nerve leaves the eye Convergence: Eyes strain more (looking o Smell (olfaction): Only sense that does
o Feature detectors – specialized cells inward) as objects draw nearer NOT route through the thalamus 1st.
that see shapes, lines, etc. located in ● TOP-DOWN PROCESSING: Whole 🡪 Goes to temporal lobe and amygdala
occipital lobe (experiments by Hubel &
Weisel) smaller parts (painting w/ faces) ● GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY: Whole is
● BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING: Smaller greater than the sum of its parts
● THEORIES OF COLOR VISION:
Gestalt Principles:
o Trichromatic – three cones for Parts 🡪 Whole (dog of bunch of dots)
receiving color (blue, red, green) ▪ Figure/ground: organize information
● AUDITORY SYSTEM: into figures objects (figures)
Keythat
wordstand
▪ Explains color blindness - they are
apart from surrounds (back ground)
missing a cone type o Pathway of sound: sound 🡪 pinna 🡪
o Opponent Process – complementary ▪ Closure: mentally fill in gaps
colors are processed in ganglion cells – auditory canal 🡪ear drum (tympanic
▪ Proximity: group things together that
explains why we see an after image membrane) 🡪 hammer, anvil, stirrup appear near each other
● Visual Capture: Visual system
(HAS) 🡪 oval window 🡪 cochlea 🡪 ▪ Similarity: group things together based
overwhelms all others (nauseous in an
auditory nerve 🡪 temporal lobes
IMAX theater – vision trumps vestibular) off of looks
 O LAW OF EFFECT (Thorndike): O Variable schedules are most resistant to
▪ Continuity: tendency to mentally form
Behaviors followed by pos. outcomes extinction (how long will keep playing a
a continuous line are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken slot machine before you think its
a behavior (cat in the puzzle box) broken?)
●PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT COND:
SOCIAL (OBSERVATIONAL)
O Pos. Reinforcement: Add something LEARNING: BANDURA!
nice to increase a behavior (gold star for
turning in HW) ●Modeling Behaviors: Children model
O Neg. Reinforcement: Take away (imitate) behaviors. Study used BoBo
something bad/annoying to increase a dolls to demonstrate the following
behavior (put on seatbelt to take away O Prosocial – helping behaviors
annoying car signal) O Antisocial – mean behaviors
O Pos. Punishment: Add something bad
●MISC LEARNING TYPES
to decrease a behavior (spanking)
Latent learning (Tolman!) – learning is
Learning O Neg. Punishment: Take away O
hidden until useful (rats in maze get
something good to decrease a behavior
(7-9 %) (take away car keys) reinforced half way through,
O Primary Reinforcers: innately performance improved
All associated w/ classical conditioning
satisfying (food and water) ▪ Cognitive maps – mental
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PAVLOV! O Secondary Reinforcers: everything else
o Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): causes representation of an area, allows
(stickers, high-fives) navigation if blocked
response w/o needing to be learned (food)
O Insight learning (Kohler!) – some
o Unconditioned Response (UCR): response
learning is through simple intuition
that naturally occurs w/o training (salivate)
(chimps with crates to get bananas)
o Neutral Response (NS): stimulus that
▪ Token Reinforcer: type of O Learned Helplessness – no matter what
normally doesn’t evoke a response (bell)
secondary- can be exchanged for other you do you never get a positive outcome
o Conditioned Stimulus (CS): once NS that
stuff (game tokens or money) so you just give up (word scrambles)
now brings about a response (bell)
o Conditioned Response (CR): response O Generalization: respond to similar
after conditioning, follows a CS (salivate) stimulus for reward Cognition
O Discrimination: stimulus signals when
o Contiguity: Timing of the pairing, NS/CS
behavior will or will not be reinforced
(13 – 17%)
must be presented .5-1 sec BEFORE the US
(light on means response are accepted) ENCODING: Getting info into memory
o Acquisition: process of learning the
response pairing O Extinction / Spontaneous Recovery: ●Automatic encoding – requires no effort
o Extinction: previously conditioned same as classical conditioning
(what did you have for breakfast?)
response dies out over time O Overjustification Effect: reinforcing
o Spontaneous Recovery: After a period of behaviors that are intrinsically ●Effortful encoding – requires attention
time the CR comes back out of nowhere motivating causes you to stop doing (school work)
o Generalization: CR to like stimuli (similar them (give a child 5$ for reading when
they already like to read – they stop ●Shallow, intermediate, deep processing:
sounding bell)
reading) the more emphasis on MEANING the
o Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS (only
O Shaping: use successive approximations deeper the processing, and the better
drool to that one bell, no others)
to train behavior (reward desired remembered
CONTINGENCY MODEL: Rescorla &
Wagner – classical conditioning involves behaviors to teach a response – rat ●Imagery – attaching images to information
cognitive processes basketball)
O Continuous Reinforcement schedule: makes it easier to remember (shoe w/
CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION spaghetti laces)
(ONE-TRIAL LEARNING): John Receive reward for every response
Garcia – Innate predispositions can allow O Fixed Ratio schedule: Reward every X ●Self-referent encoding – we better
classical conditioning to occur in one trial number of response (every 10 envelopes remember what we’re interested in (you’d
(food poisoning) stuffed get $$) remember someone’s phone number who
John Watson (father of behaviorism) and O Fixed Interval schedule: Reward every you found extremely attractive)
Little Albert – conditioned a fear in a baby X amount of time passed (every 2 weeks
get a paycheck) ●Dual encoding – using multiple methods
– eventually leads to behavioral treatments
for fear (counterconditioning) O Variable Ratio schedule: Rewarded of processing to remember (photo + words)
after a random number of responses (slot ●Chunking – break info into smaller units
All operant conditioning
machine
Variable Interval schedule: Rewarded to aid in memory (like a phone #)
OPERANT CONDITIONING: O
SKINNER! after a random amount of time has ●Mnemonics – shortcuts to help us
passed (fishing) remember info easier
 o Acronyms – using letter to remember
▪ Procedural: skills (muscle ●Misinformation effect: distortion of
something (PEMDAS)
o Method of loci – using locations to memory)** needs to CLEARLY memory by suggestion or misinformation
remember a list of items in order be an example w/o conscious (Loftus – lost in the mall, Disney land)
o Peg-word – using a rhyme w/ thought on FRQ
●Framing – the way a question is framed
imagery to remember lists in order ●Memory organization impacts how info is recalled / perceived
●Context dependent memory – where o Hierarchies: memory is stored (how fast were the cars going when they
according to a hierarchy smashed)
you learn the info you best remember
the info (scuba divers testing) o Semantic networks: linked ●Anterograde amnesia: amnesia moves
memories are stored together
●State dependent memory – the o Schemas: preexisting mental concept forward (forget new info – 50 first dates)
physical state you were in when of how something should look (like a ●Retrograde amnesia: amnesia moves
learning is the way you should be when restaurant) backwards (forget old info)
testing (study high, test high)
●Memory storage ●Source Amnesia: forget who told you,
●Depth of Processing – the deeper o Acetylcholine neurons in the where you heard it
(more effort, thought) you think about hippocampus for most memories
something the more you remember o Cerebellum for procedural ●ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE: caused by
STORAGE: Retaining info over time memories destruction of acetylcholine in
●Information Processing Model – o Long-term potentiation: neural basis of hippocampus
memory – connections are strengthened LANGUAGE
Sensory memory, short term memory, over time with repeated stimulation (more ●Phonemes: smallest unit of sound (ch
long term memory model firing of neurons)
●Sensory Memory – stores all incoming RETRIEVAL: Taking info out of storage sound in chat)
stimuli that you receive (first you have ●Serial Position Effect: tendency to ●Morpheme: smallest unit that caries
to a pay attention) meaning (-ed means past tense)
remember the beginning (primacy effect)
o Iconic Memory – visual memory, and the end (recency effect) of the list best ●Grammar: rules in a language that enable
lasts 0.3 seconds
o Echoic Memory – auditory memory, ●Recall: remember what you’ve been told us to communicate
lasts 2-3 seconds w/o cues (essays) ●Semantics: set of rules by which we
●Short Term Memory – info passes ●Recognition: remember what you’ve been derive meaning (adding –ed makes
from sensory memory to STM – lasts told w/ cues (MC) something past tense)
30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items ●Syntax: rules for combining words into
●Flashbulb memories: particularly vivid
o Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets
memories for highly important events sentences (white house vs casa blanca)
the clock
(9/11 attacks) ●Surface structures: actual written/ spoken
●Working Memory Model splits STM
●Repressed memories: unconsciously message
into 2 – visual spatial memory (from
iconic mem) and phonological loop buried memories – are unreliable ●Deep structures: intended meaning (I
(from echoic mem). A “central ●Encoding failure: forget info b/c you never said she stole my money – has 7
executive” puts it together before different interpretations)
never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the
passing it to LTM
first place (which is the real penny) ●Babbling stage: 1st stage of speech
●Long term memory – lasts a life time
●Encoding specificity principle: the more
o Explicit (Declarative): Conscious ●One-word stage: duh
closely retrieval cues match the way we
recollection ●Two-word stage: duh duh (telegraphic
learned the info, the better we remember
▪ Episodic: events the info (like state dependent memory) speech)
▪ Semantic: facts ●Forgetting curve: recall decreases rapidly ●Theories of language development:
o Implicit (Nondeclarative): at first, then reaches a plateau after which
unconscious recollection little more is forgotten (EBBINGHAUS)

▪ Classical conditioning ● Proactive interference

▪ Priming: info that is seen earlier OLD info blocks new info
“primes” you to remember ● Retroactive interference
something later on
NEW info blocks old info
 o Behavioral Theory (SKINNER): o Mental age = tested age compared to
●Confirmation bias: look for evidence to
learn language through pos. other of that age
reinforcement o 100 is average
3 Part FRQ Answers: B.P. – belief,
▪ Imitation: Kids repeat what they hear contrary evidence, belief stays. C.B. – ●WECHSLER: developed the WAIS and
o Nativistic theory (lang. acquisition belief, seek supporting evidence, belief WISC – most commonly used today
device): NOAM CHOMSKY – stays ●FLYNN effect: IQ has steadily risen over
language is innate / biological; we are support what we already believe
predisposed to learn the past 80 years – probably due to
● Inductive reasoning: data drives education standards and better IQ tests
▪ Overregularization: grammar decisions,(inductive ends with an idea ●Extremes of Intelligence: high IQ = above
mistake- children over use certain (I/I)
morphemes (I go-ed to the park) 135; intellectually disadvantage = below 70
● Deductive reasoning: driven by logic,
o Critical period: period of time where ●Causes of mild intellectual disadvantage:
something must be learned or else it deductive ends w/ data (d/d)
o PKU – liver fails to produce an enzyme
cannot ever happen (language must be ● Divergent thinking: ability to think needed to breakdown chemicals – leads
learned young – Genie the Wild Child)
about many different things at once to brain damage
o Linguistic determinism: language
(Creative) o Down syndrome – extra copy of 21st
influences the way we think (Hopi have
chromosome
no words for past, do not think about ● Convergent thinking: limits creativity – one
o Fragile X – higher chance in boys due to
the past) developed by WHORF answer ONE X chromosome
INDIVIDUAL THEORIES ABOUT
THINKING INTELLIGENCE ●Influence on IQ:
●Metacognition: thinking about (reflecting ●GALTON: 1st to suggest intelligence was o Genetics: MZ twins have similar IQ,
upon) the way you think adopted kids more similar to biological
inherited. Supported eugenics.
parents
●Concepts: mental categories used to group ●CATTELL: 2 clusters of mental abilities o Environment: early neglect leads to
objects, events, characteristics o Crystalized intelligence: language skills lower IQ, good schooling to higher IQ
●Prototypes: all instances of a concept are and facts - what you learn in school –hard ●Types of Tests:
(like crystals!) facts, increase w/ age
compared to an ideal example (what you o Aptitude: predicts your abilities to learn
o Fluid intelligence: spatial abilities,
first think of) a new skill (ASVAB)
processing speed, abstract thinking –
●Algorithms: step by step strategies that o Achievement: tests what you know(SAT)
can’t learn in school. decrease w/ age
guarantee a solution (formula) ●TEST CREATION:
●SPEARMAN’S G FACTOR: said a
●Heuristics: short cut strategy (rule of o Standardization: administer a test to a
general intelligence (g) underlies all mental
abilities (typical IQ of today) representative sample of future test takers
thumb) to establish a basis for meaningful
o Representative Heuristic: make ●GARDNER: multiple intelligences (8): comparison (test it out 1st)
judgment based on your experience (like o Should be reliable: same results over
linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical,
a stereotype) – assume someone must be time
spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal
a librarian b/c they’re quiet
(self), interpersonal (others), naturalist ▪ Split-half reliability: compare two
o Availability heuristic: make a
judgement based on the first thing that ●STERNBERG: TRIARCHIC THEORY halves of the test
pops in your head (assume planes are o Analytical: mental components to solve
dangerous b/c crash in the news) ▪ Test-retest reliability: use the same
problems, what IQ tests assess (book
smarts) test on 2 different occasions
●Mental Set - keep using one strategy to o Should be valid: test is accurate –
o Practical: ability to size up new
solve a problem – cannot think outside the measures what it is intended to
box situations and adapt to real-life demands
(street smarts)
●Functional Fixedness: can only see one o Creative: intellectual and motivational
(common) use for an item– cannot think processes that lead to novel solutions,
outside of the box idea, products
●Belief bias: tendency of one’s preexisting ●BINET: developed 1st intelligence test,
beliefs to distort logical reasoning by combined with TERMAN – developed
making invalid conclusions the STANFORD-BINET IQ TEST
●Belief perseverance: cling to our beliefs
in the face on contrary evidence
o Chronological age = actual age
 (ACcommodation - All Change). Cat and o Authoritarian: rules & obedience, “my
▪ Content validity: test measures what
dogs = different. way or the highway” – kids lack
you want it to (an IQ test actually initiative in college
measures IQ) ●Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years:
o Permissive: kids do whatever – no rules
focused on exploring the world around – kids lack initiative in college
▪ Predictive validity: test is able to
them o Authoritative: give and take w/ kids –
accurately predict a trait (high math o Lack Object Permanence: Objects when
scores predicts good engineer) kids become socially competent and
removed from field of view are thought to reliable – best type
●Standardized tests establish a normal disappear (peek-a-boo)
o Dev. Sense of Self: by 2 yrs can ●MARY AINSWORTH: developed the
distribution
recognize themselves in the mirror (blush strange situation paradigm (children left
●Standard deviations are used to compare test) alone in a room w/ a stranger, then reunited
scores. ●Pre-operational Stage: 2 – 7 years: use w/ mom – determines your attachment style
Standard deviation measures how much the o Secure attachment (60% of infants):
scores vary from the mean. The percentages pretend play, developing language, using upset when mom leaves, easily calmed
intuitive reasoning on return. Tend to be more stable adults
stay the same in every curve o Lack Conservation: recognize that o Avoidant attachment (20% infants):
Development substances remain the same despite actively avoids mom, doesn’t care when
changes in shape, length, or position (girls
(7-9%) with juice in glasses)
she leaves
o Ambivalent attachment(10% infants):
●Prenatal Development: o Lack Reversibility: cannot do reverse actively avoids mom, freaks out when
operations (count out both 4+2 and 2+4) she leaves
o Zygote: 0 – 14 days, cells are dividing
o Are egocentric: inability to distinguish o Disorganized attachment (5%):
o Embryo: until about 9 weeks, vital
one’s own perspective from another’s – confused, fearful, dazed – result of abuse
organs being formed think everyone sees what they see
o Fetus: 9 wks to birth ●KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEV
o Teratogens: external agents that can ●Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 yrs: use
o Preconventional morality: Children:
cause abnormal prenatal development operational thinking, classification, and they follow rules to avoid punishment
(alcohol, drugs, etc) can think logical in concrete context o Conventional morality: adolescents:
▪ Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): large ●Formal Operational Stage: 11-15 yrs: use follow rules b/c it’s the law, or to gain
amount of alcohol leads to FAS, causes abstract and idealist thoughts, social approval
deformities, mental disability, death hypothetical-deductive reasoning o Postconventional morality: adults: they
do what they believe is right (even if it
●Physical Development: ●Problems with Piaget’s theory: stages too goes against society)
o Maturation: natural course of discrete, dev. differs b/w kids
●Carol Gilligan: said moral reasoning and
development, occurs no matter what ●VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: cognitive
(walking) moral behaviors are two different things
o Reflexes: innate responses we’re born w/ development is a social process too, need to (what you say isn’t always what you do)
interact w/ others
▪ Rooting, sucking, swallowing, ●Also said mean use “justice” for postcon.
o Zone of Proximal Development: gap
grasping, Moro (startle), stepping, b/w what a child can do on their own and women use “caring for others”
Babinski (toes spread when foot w/ support. Need scaffolding (teachers) ●ERIKSON’S SOCIOEMOTINAL DEV. :
touched) SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
each stage represents a crisis that must be
o Eyes have the most limited ●Temperament: patterns of emotional resolved, results in competence or weakness
development, takes till 1 year o Trust vs Mistrust (birth – 18 months): if
reactions and babies (precursor to
▪ Visual cliff: babies have to learn depth personality) needs are met infants dev basic trust
perception, so they will cross a “cliff” o Autonomy vs shame&doubt (1 -3 yrs):
●Imprinting: baby geese believe the first learn to exercise their will (I WANT TO
o Other senses are fairly developed
thing they see after hatching is their mom – DO IT – pours milk)
●JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEV. happens during a critical period (from o Initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs): learn to
LORENZ) initiate tasks and carry out plans (WHY
●Schemas – concepts or frameworks that
●HARRY HARLOW: discovered that kid)
organize info o Industry vs inferiority (6 yrs to
contact comfort is more important than
●Assimilation: incorporate new info into puberty): learn what you’re good or
feeding (monkeys fed on wire or cloth
accomplished at (school / sports success)
existing schema (aSSimlation – same stuff). mothers). Monkeys raised in isolation
o Identity vs role confusion: (adolescence
Cat is a dog b/c 4 legs. couldn’t socialize
thru 20s): refine a sense of self by testing
●Accommodation: adjust existing schemas ●BAUMRIND: parenting styles roles and forming an identity
to incorporate new information
 o Intimacy vs isolation: (20s—40s): form
●INSTINCT: complex behaviors have fixed
close relationships and gain capacity for
love patterns and are not learned (explains
o Generativity vs stagnation: (40s-60s): animal motivation)
discover sense of contributing to the ●DRIVE REDUCTION: physiological need
world, thru family & work creates aroused tension (drive) that
o Integrity vs despair: (60s and up): motivates you to satisfy the need (driven by
reflect on your life, feel satisfaction or homeostasis: equilibrium). “I’m hungry, I
failure seek out food to decrease my hunger” HUNGER
●PUBERTY! (rapid skeletal and sexual o Primary drive: unlearned drive based
on survival (hunger, thirst) ●Signals of hunger:
maturation)
o Primary sex characteristics: necessary o Secondary drive: learned drive o Stomach contractions tell us we’re hungry
structures for reproduction (ovaries, (wealth or success) o Glucose (sugar) level is maintained by
testicles, vagina, penis) ●INCENTIVE THEORY: driven by the pancreas (endocrine system).
o Secondary sex characteristics: o Insulin decreases glucose. Too little
external rewards
nonreproductive characteristics that dev glucose makes us hungry.
o Intrinsic motivation: inner motivation
during puberty (breasts, hips, deepening o Hormones signal eat: orexin, Ghrelin
– you do it b/c you like it
of voice, body hair) o Hormones signal stop: PYY, leptin
o Extrinsic motivation: motivation to
o Frontal lobe continuous dev (not fully o Lateral hypothalamus: stimulated
obtain a reward (trophy)
developed till 25) makes you hungry; lesioned you will
●COGNITIVE DISSONANCE: never eat again. (I’m LATE for lunch.
●GENDER DEVELOPMENT: sex =
(FESTINGER): two opposing thoughts I’m hungry. The LATEral
chromosomes, gender = what you identify conflict w/ each other, causing discomfort hypothalamus makes you hungry.)
yourself as (dissonance), which makes us find ways to
o Gender roles: expected behaviors ●Ventromedial hypothalamus: when
justify the situation (cult that was going to
(norms) for men/women stimulated you feel full, when destroyed you
be abducted by aliens, smokers)
o Social learning theory: we learn gender eat eat eat eat
roles and identity from those around us ●Obesity:
●AGING: o Increased risk of heart attack,
o Cellular clock theory: cells have a hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes
maximum # of divisions before they o Can be genetic – adopted children
can’t divide anymore ●OPTIMUM AROUSAL (ALSO resemble their biological parents
o Free-radical theory: unstable oxygen CALLED THE YERKES DODSON o Set point: control system dictates how
molecules w/in cells damage DNA LAW): humans seek optimum levels of much fat you should carry – every person
o Over time skills decrease (reaction arousal –easier tasks requires more arousal, is different
time, memory) Eating Disorders:
o Anorexia: weight loss of at least 15%
●CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY: studies ideal weight, distorted body image
ppl of different ages at the same point in
▪ Causes: overly critical parents,
time
o Adv: inexpensive & quick perfectionist tendencies, societal ideals
o Disadv: can be differences due to o Bulimia: usually normal body weight, go
generational gap through a binge-purge eating pattern (eat
massive amounts, then throw up)
●LONGITUDINAL STUDY: studies same
▪ Causes: same as anorexia
ppl over time
o Adv: eliminates groups (cohort) o Binge Eating: engage in binge patterns
differences, lots of detail only, no purge
o Disadv: expensive, time consuming, high SEXUALITY
drop out rates ●Biology of sex:
harder tasks need less o Hypothalamus: stimulation increases
Motivation, Emotion, and sexual behavior, destruction leads to
●HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: theory derived
Personality sexual inhibition
by MASLOW – needs lower in the pyramid
(11-15%) have priority over needs higher in the
▪ Males – testosterone
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION pyramid ▪ Females - estrogen
o Sexual Response Pattern: Excitement
phase, plateau, orgasm, refractory period
 (resolution phase) (cannot “fire” again to choose one (clean your room or do
●Theory X management: manager controls
until you reset, guys only) your homework)
o Alfred Kinsey: created Kinsey scale of employees, enforces rules. Good for lower
level jobs ● Multiple approach avoidance conflict:
homosexuality (ranges on a spectrum)
Studies lacked a representative sample two (or more) win-lose situations; conflict
●Theory Y management: manger gives
o Homosexuality: biological roots: is which to choose (College A is good for
differences in the brain, identical twins your major but no scholarship, College B
more likely to both be gay, later sons is bad for your major but has a
more likely to be (hormones from mom) scholarship)
THORIES OF EMOTIONS
Older Theories
PERSONALITY THEORIES
●James Lange – Stimulus 🡪 Arousal (SNS) PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATION
SIGMUND FREUD said personality was
🡪 Emotion employees responsibility, looks for input. largely unconscious.
●Canon Bard – Stimulus 🡪 Arousal / Good for high level jobs
●Conscious: current awareness
STRESS AND HEALTH
Emotion simultaneous Cog. Label is
New Theories ● Problem-focused coping: solving or doing ●Preconscious: available to awareness
the key
(phone #s)
●Schacter Two Factor – Stimulus 🡪arousal 🡪 something to alter the course of stress
(planning, acceptance) ●Unconscious: unavailable to awareness
label / emotion simultaneous
●Emotion-focused coping: reducing the
●Lazarus Appraisal – Stimulus 🡪 Label
Not valid today
●id: our hidden true animalistic wants and
emotional distress (denial, disengagement)
desires – operates on the pleasure principle,
🡪Arousal / Emotion (LL – Lazarus Labels ●GENERAL ADAPTATION all about rewards and avoiding pain (devil
First) on your shoulder – entirely unconscious)
Biological Theory (Le Doux)
●superego: our moral conscious (angel on
●Some stimuli are routed directly to the your shoulder, all 3 consciousness)
amygdala bypassing the frontal cortex (gut
reaction to a cockroach) ●ego: reality principle, has to deal w/ society,
stuck mediating b/w the id and superego (its
SYNDROME (GAS): three phases of a you! – conscious and preconscious)
●Behavioral factors: there are SIX universal When ego cannot mediate b/w the id and
stress response (SELYE came up w/ this)
emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, o Alarm: body/you freak out in response to superego, we use defense mechanisms
surprise, disgust, feat) seen across ALL stress
cultures (Eckman’s theory) ●Repression: push memories back into the
o Resistance: body/you are dealing with
stress unconscious mind (sexual abuse is too
●Non-verbal cues: gestures, duchenne smile traumatic to deal w/ so you repress it)
o Exhaustion: body/you cannot take any
(you can tell a real smile from a fake one)
more, give up ●Projection: attribute personal shortcomings
●Facial feedback hypothesis: being forced o FRQ – MUST REFERENCE A & faults on to others (man who wants to
to smile will make you happier (cartoon PHYSIO REPSONSE have an affair accuses his wife of one)
study with pen in mouth) ●Type A Personality: rigid, stressful person, ●Denial: refuse to acknowledge reality
●Display Rules: social group or culture’s perfectionist. At risk for heart disease (refuse to believe you have cancer)
norms of how to express certain emotions ●Type B Personality: laid back, nonstressed. ●Displacement; take feelings out on
INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL
PSYCH Theories of Conflict (Lewin) something else (can’t tell at teacher, go
● Approach approach conflict: win – win home and yell at the dog)
●Industrial / Organizational Psych:
psychof the work – employee recruitment, situation; conflict is which win you have ●Reaction formation: transform
training, satisfaction, productivity to choose (you can eat out at ONE of your unacceptable motive into his opposite
two favorite restaurants – you can only (woman who fears sexual urges becomes a
●Ergonomics / Human Factors: intersection choose one though) religious zealot)
of engineering and psych – focuses on ● Approach avoidance conflict: win – lose ●Regression: go into an earlier development
safety and efficiency of human-machine
interactions situation; outcome has positive and period in the face of stress (during exam
● negative aspects (marriage) week you start to suck your thumb)
●Hawthorne effect: productivity increases
when workers are made to feel important ●Rationalization: replace a less acceptable
● Avoidance avoidance conflict : lose –
(teacher teaches when principal comes in) reasoning with a more acceptable one (don’t
lose; both outcomes are bad but you have
 get into your college – justify it was a sucky o A positive self-concept makes us perceive
●CARL JUNG: believed in the collective
college anyway) the world positively (optimist)
unconscious (shared inherited reservoir of o A negative self-concept makes us feel
●Sublimation: replace unacceptable impulse memory – explains common myths across dissatisfied and unhappy
w/ a socially acceptable one (person who civilizations & time) What wrong with humanistic theory? -
likes fighting becomes professional too optimistic about human nature, abstract
●KAREN HORNEY: said personality
kickboxer) concepts are difficult to test
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES develops in context of social relationships,
NOT sexual urges (security not sex is What’s good about it? – emphasizes
●Oral stage (0-18 months): focuses on the motivation, men get womb envy) conscious experiences and change
mouth (born entirely id) ●Individualistic Cultures: give priorities to
●ALFRED ADLER: coined “inferiority
●Anal stage (18 – 36 months): involves complex” also argued a social nature own goals over group goals. Define your
eliminative functions (ego forms) TRAIT PERSPECTIVE identify in terms of you (American society)

●Phallic stage (3 – 6 yrs): focuses on ●Traits: enduring personality characteristics, ●Collectivistic Cultures: give priority to the
genitals (superego forms) people can be described by these – have goals of the group, your identity is part of
o Oedipal complex: young boys learn to strong or weak tendencies. They are stable, that group (China)
genetic, and predict other attributes. SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
identify w/ their father out of fear of
retribution (castration anxiety) ●Use factor analysis: statistical procedure ●Behavior is a complex interaction of inner
o Electra complex: young girls learn to process and environmental influence –
identify w/ their mother b/c they cannot used to identify similar components
which influences personality
with their father (penis envy) ●TRAIT THEORIES:
●Emphasizes conscious awareness, beliefs,
●Latency stage (6 yrs to puberty): psychic ●Big Five: (by Costa & McCrae) (acronym expectations, and goals
time out – personality is set OCEAN) You vary on each of these ●BANDURA! Talked about RECIPROCAL
●Genital State (adulthood): sexual o Openness : high levels = imaginative,
DETERMINISM: interaction of behavior,
reawakening – oedipal and electra independent, like variety
cognitions, and environment make up you.
“feelings” are repressed, turn sexual wants o Conscientiousness: high levels =
{I’m outgoing
onto an appropriate person organized, careful, disciplined
(behavior), I
o Extraversion: high levels = sociable, fun-
●FIXATION: can become “stuck” in an choose to teach
loving, affectionate (opposite is b/c it lets me be
earlier stage – influences personality (oral introversion: shy, timid, reserved) outgoing
stage smokes/drinks, anal is “anal o Agreeableness: high levels = soft (environment),
retentive”, phallic is promiscuous) hearted, trusting, helpful and I have thought
What’s wrong w/ Freud theory? – o Neuroticism (emotional stability): low this through which is why I teach despite
unverifiable, descriptive not predictive neuroticism (high stability) = calm, making less money (cognitive)}
What’s good about it? – 1st theory about secure
personality, sparked psychoanalysis What’s wrong with trait theory? – ignores ●Self-efficacy: belief that one can succeed,
How do we test this approach? the role of the situation in behavior so you ensure you do through actions
●Psychoanalysis: analyze a person’s What’s good about it? - identifying traits *****FRQ FAVORITE
gives us perspectives about careers,
unconscious motives thru the use of: ●Internal locus of control: you control your
relationships, health
o Free Association: say aloud everything How do we test this approach? own fate
that comes to mind w/o hesitation
o Transference: looks for feelings to ●Personality Inventories like: ●External locus of control: chance / outside
transferred to psychoanalyst o MMPI –for mental health and jobs forces control your fate
o Dream interpretation: analyze the What’s wrong w/ these tests? What’s wrong with social-cognitive? – Too
manifest (seen message) and latent specific, cannot generalize
●They’re long, social desirability can be an
(hidden messages) content What’s good about it? – Highlights
o Projective Tests: ambiguous stimuli influence, and they’re too broad situations, and cog. explanations
shown to look at your unconscious HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE How do we test it? – Observations &
motives (THESE SUCK B/C THEY ●Emphasized personal growth and free will. interviews (time consuming)
ARE VERY SUBJECTIVE) Clinical Psychology
You don’t like yourself? So change!
▪ Thematic apperception test (TAT) : (12 – 16%)
●CARL ROGERS: talked about our self-
tell a story about a picture (when
concept (idea of who we are). Your self- ●Defining abnormal behavior:
someone has a tattoo (tatt) you ask
concept is the center of your personality
what it means o Requires “clinically significant”
o Actual (social) self: what others see
▪ Rorschach inkblot: show an inkblot disturbance in cognition, emotional
o Ideal (true) self: who you WANT to be
regulation or behavior AND
NEO-FREUDIANS
 o Significant distress or disability social o Illness Anxiety Disorder: person (like stress) –most commonly developed
situations, occupations or other important obsesses over the possibility of having during college years
activities an illness (no physical symptoms) DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS
o Somatic Symptom Disorder: person ●Major depressive disorder: extreme
●Historical causes: biology, psychological
interprets normal symptoms as a major
issues, supernatural issues (demons) disease sadness and despair, apathy towards life
●Medical model: emphasizes treatment of ●Disruptive mood regulation disorder:
disorders, as they have a biological origin. Frequent temper tantrums inconsistent with
DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS developmental level
●Biopsychosocial model: currently used
●Dissociative Identity Disorder: formerly ●Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD): form
model – stress biological, psychological,
multiple personalities – person fractures of depression that occurs typically winter –
and social causes
into several distinct personalities who found mostly in Northern areas (Alaska,
●Diagnosing abnormal behavior: normally have no awareness of each other. Ireland) UNIQUE TREATMENT =
o DSM: manual listing all currently NOT SCHIZOPHRENIA! LIGHT THERAPY
accepted psychological disorders. o Usually caused by childhood abuse BIPOLAR DISORDERS
Classifies them based on criteria – ●Dissociative Amnesia + Fugue: following ●Bipolar disorder: bouts of severe
provides no explanation of causes or
a traumatic event a person leaves, taking on depression & manic episodes
treatments
a whole new life & personality w/ no o Mania: heightened mood, characterized
● Dorothea Dix – reform movement – memory of the previous one by risky behaviors, fast talking, flights of
helped reform psychiatric care in early SCHIZOPHRENIA ideas
America NOT MULTIPLE PERSONALITIES! CAUSES OF DEPRESSIVE AND
THEY HAVE ONE PERSONALITY! BIPOLAR DISORDERS
● Rosenhan study – indvs. Purposefully
●SYMPTOMS ●Biology: lower levels of serotonin &
got admitted to institutions, caused
reform in institutions again o Positive Symptoms (not good – means norepinephrine linked to depression, higher
ANXIETY DISORDERS something added)) levels of norepinephrine linked to mania.
Most common disorders in the U.S. ▪ Hallucinations: sensory experiences Runs in families suggesting GENES. Twin
●Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): studies also support this.
w/o sensory stimulation (seeing and/or
person is generally anxious, all the time, for hearing things) ●Cognitive: negative thought patterns leads
NO REASON ▪ Delusions: fixed, false beliefs (people to depression
●Panic Disorder: person is prone to frequent PERSONALITY DISORDERS
are out to get them, grandiose thoughts
panic attacks (feeling like you’re having a (I am God) ●Marked by disruptive, inflexible, enduring
heart attack). Can come w/ agoraphobia: ▪ Disorganized thinking, Disorganized behavior patterns – makes this very
anxiety about being in places you cannot difficult to treat!
escape (fear of public spaces / people) speech
o Antisocial: NOT “avoidant of
o Negative Symptoms (something taken
●Phobias: irrational fear that disrupts your socialization” – more like “anti-society” –
away)
disregard for others, manipulative, breaks
life ▪ Flat affect: lack ability to show laws
CAUSES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS:
emotions o Borderline: instable interpersonal
● Psychodynamic: repressed thoughts & relationships & self-image
feelings manifest in anxiety and rituals ▪ Impaired decision making, inability o Histrionic: excessive emotionality &
● Behaviorist: fear conditioning leads to
to pay attention attention seeking
o Catatonia: become frozen over periods o Narcissistic: need for admiration & lack
anxiety, which is then reinforced. Phobias
might be learned through observational
of time (exhibit waxy flexibility: can of empathy
learning move them into new positions) OTHER DISORDERS
Biological: natural selection favored those with ●CAUSES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA ● Obsessive-compulsive Disorders
certain phobias (heights). Twins often share
disorders. Often see less GABA in the brain o Brain abnormalities: enlarged ventricles (OCD): person is overwhelmed with
SOMATOFORM DISORDERS (atrophy), smaller frontal cortex both:
o Genetics: runs in families, MZ twins at o Obsessions: persistent unwanted
● Psych disorders w/ no physical cause
higher risk thoughts (did I leave the stove on?)
o Conversion disorder: loss of feeling or o Dopamine hypothesis: too much o Compulsions: senseless rituals (hand
usage of a limb or body part (sight) – dopamine in the brain washing)
absolutely no physiological cause o Diathesis – Stress: individual has a
though ● Post-traumatic stress disorders
genetic predisposition, disease must be
“turned-on” by environmental stimuli (PTSD): flashbacks, problems w/
 concentration, and anxiety following a
●Intensive exposure therapy ●Attribution theory: we explain others
traumatic event (war, natural disasters)
(Flooding): force someone to behaviors by crediting the situation or the
● Autism Spectrum Disorder: usually experience the fear (afraid of person’s internal disposition (they only
diagnosed in childhood, characterized by drowning, throw you in a pool) passed b/c they cheated)
an impairment in social relationships, o Operant Conditioning: use behavior
●Actor-observer bias: when its
communication, and activities modification (reward good behaviors w/
TREATMENT OF DISORDERS token reinforcers ). Used in schools, w/ others – blame the person, when its you,
autistic children, etc. blame the situation
●PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH: SEE
● OTHER THERPAIES: ●Fundamental attribution error
PERSONALITY SECTION
o Family therapy: treats the family as a tendency for observers to underestimate
●HUMANISTIC APPROACH: the importance of the situation and
system, individual behaviors are
o Client-centered therapy: (developed by influenced by family dynamics overestimate the impact of personal
CARL ROGERS) techniques include o Group therapy: therapy through a group disposition (that guy cut me off b/c he’s a
active listening, accepting environment, jerk – not that his wife could be in labor)
– lets patients see “they’re not alone”
focuses on patient growth (you figure ●Central route to persuasion: change
out what needs to change and do it) ●BIOLOGICAL APPROACH: CALLED
people’s attitudes through logical
●COGNITIVE APPROACH: BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES
o Drug therapies (psychopharmacology): arguments and explanations. Leads to
o Rational-emotive therapy: (developed long term behavior change
by ELLIS) techniques include analyzing ▪ Anti-psychotics: decrease dopamine:
●Peripheral route to persuasion: change
self-defeating behaviors to change treats schizophrenia
thought patterns – and then change people’s attitudes through incidental cues
behaviors associated w/ said patterns ●Side effects: TARDIVE (like a speaker’s attractiveness). Leads to
DYSKINESIA: hand tremors (similar temporary behavior changes
▪ Best for anxiety disorders
to Parkinson’s- due to lack of ●Foot in the door phenomenon:
▪ Very confrontational dopamine), worsening of negative
complying w/ a small request then leads
symptoms, extreme sedation
o Cognitive therapy: (developed by to going along w/ a larger request (can I
●Drug names: thorazine, clozapine have $5? Yes. Now can I have $25?)
BECK) illogical thoughts 🡪
▪ Mood stabilizers: used in the treatment ●Door in the face phenomenon: a large
psychological problems, challenges
those thoughts of BIPOLAR disorder : LITHIUM request is turned down, when then leads
you to be more likely to comply w/ a
▪ Best for depression ▪ Anti-anxiety drugs: depress the small request (can I have $100? Heck no!
central nervous system (dangerous in How about $20? Okay)
▪ Self-directed – you figure out your
combo w/ alcohol) Xanax, Ativan ●Halo effect: if your 1st impression
errors
▪ Anti-depressants: increase serotonin someone is good you’ll interpret other
●BEHAVIORAL APPROACH (typically
through REUPTAKE inhibition info about them in a good way
used for anxiety disorders / phobias)
o Classical Conditioning: ●Side effects: drowsiness, anxiety, can ●STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT
increase suicide risk in teens (ZIMBARDO): classic “experiment” where
▪ Counterconditioning Little Albert &
individuals were assigned to be guards /
Watson ●Drug names: SSRIs (selective
prisoners. w/in days they took on their roles
serotonin reuptake inhibitors) like and went too far. Highly unethical
●Aversive conditioning: associate an
Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil. SNRIs (selective SOCIAL INFLUENCE
unpleasant experience (e.g. nausea) norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors)
w/ an unwanted behavior (e.g. Cymbalta, Effexor ●Conformity: classic experiment done by
drinking alcohol) o Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): send ASCH – showed lines of different lengths,
▪ Exposure therapy: slowly expose electricity to induce minor seizures. Used confederates gave
(rarely) to treat depression (when nothing wrong answers to
people to whatever it is that makes see if others would
else works). Thought to “reboot” the brain
them anxious
o Psychosurgery (frontal lobotomy): go along w/ it
●Systematic desensitization: frontal lobe is surgically destroyed. Used o Normative
associate a pleasant relaxed state w/ to treat depression or violent individuals – social
gradually increasing anxiety almost never used anymore influence: we conform to gain approval
triggering stimuli (create a Social or to not stand out from the group (be
desensitization hierarchy – ex. List of part of the norm)
things about flying that makes you (8-10%) o Informational social influence: we
nervous – step through each one till SOCIAL COGNITION conform to others b/c we think their
you can do it)
 opinions must be right (change answers
● Social learning theory (BANDURA) – ●False-consensus effect: we overestimate
to math hw)
observing violence in others makes us the degree to which everyone else thinks /
●Obedience: classic experiment done by more violent for a time acts the way we do
MILGRAM: participants were to “teach”
● Frustration-aggression hypothesis: ●Self-fulfilling prophecy: a belief that
another individual using shocks. 60% of
participants would administer lethal shocks frustration creates anger, which leads to leads to its own fulfillment (I expect you
to another person simply b/c they were told aggression all to pass, you know this, you study –
GROUP INFLUENCE ● Hostile aggression: emotional /
Must have all 3 for FRQ – belief behavior change
●Social facilitation: perform better on impulsive anger (setting car on fire) belief
simple or well learned tasks in the presence ● Instrumental aggression: premediated –
of others fulfilling my prophecy)
goal is to get something (give me your
●Social inhibition: perform worse on lunch money) ●Self-serving bias: readiness to perceive
difficult or unpracticed tasks in front of ATTRACTION ourselves as favorably
others ● Mere exposure effect: repeated exposure ●Spotlight effect (self-objectification) :
●Social loafing: tendency for ppl in a group to novel stimuli increases liking of them tendency of an individual to overestimate
to exert less effort when pooling their effort (the more time you spend around the extent to which others are paying
together (tug of war) something the more you like it) attention to them

●Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness ● Physical attractiveness: pretty ppl are ●Stereotype threat: feel at risk of
and self-restraint occurring in group thought to be more credible, less likely to conforming to the group, influences your
situations that foster arousal and anonymity do bad things behaviors, cognitions
(mob mentality) ● Similarity: we prefer ppl similar to us
●Group polarization: the more time spent
● Passionate Love: Early stage of romance
w/ a group the stronger their thoughts /
– intense pos. obsession w/ another (due
opinions will become
to arousal)
●Groupthink: desire for harmony w/in a
● Companionate Love: Later stage – deep
group leads to everyone going along w/ the
attachment to someone who your life is
same thinking, ignoring other possibilities
intertwined w/ - best with equality and
or bad ideas
self-disclosure (revealing intimate details
●Risky shift: groups make riskier decisions about self)
together rather than alone ALTRUISM
PREJUDICE ● Altruism: unselfish regard for the AP Exam Formatting:
●Ingroup: “US” – ppl w/ whom we share a welfare of others
common identity ● Bystander effect: the more ppl around 100 Multiple Choice Questions – 70
minutes
●Outgroup: “them” – ppl perceived as the less likely we are to help someone in
different or not part of the group need (Kitty Genovese) 10 minute break
●Ingroup bias: tendency to favor our own ● Social exchange theory: social behavior
(helping) is an exchange process – aim is TWO FRQs – 50 Minutes
group
to maximize benefits and minimize cost
●Outgroup homogeneity bias: we are
● Reciprocity norm: we give so we can get ● One FRQ specific to research
different, they are alike
CONFLICT methods
●Scapegoat theory: prejudice offers an
● Social trap: conflicting parties pursue ● One FRQ conceptually based
outlet for anger by providing someone else
to blame their own best interests, which can result
in destructive results (prisoner’s dilemma
●Ethnocentrism: tendency to see your own – game theory) (choose 5 or 15 demo)
group as more important than others FRQ TIPS:
● Superordinate goals: two or more
●Just-world phenomenon: tendency for ppl groups work together to achieve a Remember SODA CANS.
to believe that the world is just and common goal, creates cohesiveness
therefore ppl get what they deserve SOCIAL SELF Spacing – leave a space between each
(homeless ppl) term that you are writing
AGGRESION
 about. The directions tell you 5. Then answer what you think you
not to. Do it anyway. know
6. Check your time – if you have <5
Order– write in order minutes reread what you’ve wrote
and fix anything – if you have >10
minutes –BS the terms you didn’t
Define – DEFINE EVERY TERM.** know at all, then reread and fix what
you wrote on the ones you did
**w/ the exception of IV / 7. Finally, DEFINE DEFINE
DV; experimental group and DEFINE.
control goup
THOMPSON’s Last Minute
Cramming Tips:
Apply – apply the concept to the
Context - scenario given – make sure 1. Review Social. 95% likeliness to be
to refer to the prompt, don’t on the FRQ
give random examples with 2. Review Cognition. 90% likeliness to
no context. Use the terms be on the FRQ.
from the prompt. 3. Review Research – ENTIRE FRQ
GUARANTEED
Apply - use the person’s name in 4. Review Confusing Pairs.
Names - the prompt 5. Make sure you know what the
sympathetic nervous system does
and what correlation means.
Synonyms – don’t parrot the prompt – 6. Sleep.
try to use synonyms when 7. Eat.
possible 8. Don’t chug 3 Red Bulls.

Created by C.Thompson; 2013 - updated April 2022

THOMPSON’s FRQ Tips: [email protected]

1. Handwriting – FRQs are scanned in.

Its IMPERATIVE that you write in
pen and write legibly. Skip lines
between each line if you have bad
handwriting to make it easier.
2. If you accidently indicate you’re
answering question one instead of
question two or vice versa, label at
the top of the page which question
you’re answering, and how many
pages you took (page 1 of 2, etc).
3. Answer BOTH questions. It’s not a
choice.
4. Answer what you know on EACH
FRQ first. (you have MORE than
enough room to space out your
terms and keep them in order)