🠶 P h y s i c a l examples of first-order systems (Part

1 II) Chapter 5

▪Lecture 8
 ❑ Physical examples of first-order systems (Part II)
2 ✓Linearization :
▪ All the examples of physical systems, including the liquid-level system
of Fig. 5.1, have been linear.
𝒉
▪ 𝒒𝒐 = (𝟓. 𝟏)
𝑹
▪ Most physical systems of practical
importance are nonlinear.

▪ Characterization of a dynamic system by a transfer function can be

done only for linear systems (those described by linear differential
equations).
▪ The convenience of using transfer functions for dynamic analysis,
which we have already seen in applications, provides significant
motivation for approximating nonlinear systems by linear ones.
▪ A very important technique for such approximation is illustrated by
the following discussion of the liquid-level system of Fig. 5.1.
 ▪ We now assume that the flow out of the tank follows a
3 square root relationship
▪ 𝒒𝒐(𝒕) = 𝒄 𝒉(𝒕) (𝟓. 𝟑𝟎)
▪ Where 𝐜 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
▪ Assuming that :
a. The liquid density , 𝝆 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭.
b. A tank of uniform cross-Sectional area 𝑨.
❑By making material balance around the tank :
▪ 𝝆𝒒 𝒕 − 𝝆𝒒𝒐 𝒕 = 𝝆𝑨 𝒅𝒉 (𝟓. 𝟑𝟏)
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒉
▪ 𝒒 𝒕 − 𝒒𝒐 𝒕 = 𝑨
𝒅𝒕
 ❑ Combining 5.30 and 5.31

4 ▪ 𝒒 𝒕 − 𝒄 𝒉(𝒕) = 𝑨 𝒅𝒉 (𝟓. 𝟑𝟐)

𝒅𝒕
▪ This equation is non-linear differential equation.
▪ By means of a Taylor-series expansion, the function 𝒒𝒐(𝒉) may be expressed
around the steady-state value 𝒉𝒔 :
𝒒𝒐″ 𝒉𝒔 𝒉−𝒉 𝒔 𝟐
▪ 𝒒𝒐(𝒕) = 𝒒𝒐 𝒉𝒔 + 𝒒𝒐′ 𝒉𝒔 𝒉(𝒕) − 𝒉𝒔 + +⋯
𝟐!
❑ Where
▪ 𝒒𝒐′(𝒉𝒔) is the first derivative of 𝒒𝒐 evaluated at 𝒉𝒔
▪ 𝒒𝒐″(𝒉𝒔) is the second derivative evaluated at 𝒉𝒔
▪ If we keep only the linear term, the result is
▪ 𝒒𝒐 ≃ 𝒒𝒐 𝒉𝒔 + 𝒒𝒐′ 𝒉𝒔 𝒉 − 𝒉𝒔 (𝟓. 𝟑𝟑)
▪ 𝒒𝒐(𝒉𝒔) = 𝒄 𝒉𝒔
𝟏 −𝟏
▪ 𝒒′𝒐 = 𝟐
𝒄𝒉 𝟐
𝟏 −𝟏 𝒄
▪ 𝒒𝒐′ 𝒉𝒔 = 𝒄𝒉𝒔 𝟐 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝒉𝒔
 ❑ Introducing this into Eq. 5.33:
5 −
𝟏
𝟏
▪ 𝒒𝒐(𝒕) = 𝒒𝒐 𝒉𝒔 + 𝒄𝒉𝒔 𝟐(𝒉 − 𝒉𝒔)
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 − 𝟏 𝟏 −
▪ 𝒒𝒐(𝒕) = 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 + 𝒄𝒉𝒔 𝟐 𝒉 − 𝒉𝒔 , = 𝒄𝒉𝒔 𝟐
𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝟐
𝟏
▪ 𝒒𝒐(𝒕) = 𝒒𝒐𝒔 + 𝒉 − 𝒉𝒔 (𝟓. 𝟑𝟒)
𝑹𝟏

❑ Substituting 5.34 into 5.31(𝒒 𝒕 − 𝒒𝒐 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝒅𝒉):

𝒅𝒕
𝟏 𝒅𝒉
▪ 𝒒(𝒕) − 𝒒 𝒐𝒔 − 𝑹 𝒉 − 𝒉𝒔 = 𝑨 𝒅𝒕 (𝟓. 𝟑5)
𝟏

❑ At steady state the flow entering the tank = the flow leaving the tank
▪ 𝒒𝒔 = 𝒒𝟎𝒔 (𝟓. 𝟑𝟔)
𝒅 𝒉−𝒉𝒔
▪ 𝒒 − 𝒒𝒔 = 𝑨 +𝟏 𝒉 − 𝒉𝒔 (𝟓. 𝟑𝟕)
𝒅𝒕 𝑹𝟏

▪ 𝑸 = 𝒒 − 𝒒𝒔, 𝑯 = 𝒉 − 𝒉𝒔
 𝒅𝑯 𝑯
▪ 𝑸=𝑨 +
6 𝒅𝒕 𝑹𝟏
❑ By taking the Laplace transform for both sides :
𝟏
▪ 𝑸 𝒔 = 𝑨 𝒔𝑯 𝒔 − 𝑯 𝟎 + 𝑯 𝒔
𝑹𝟏

▪ 𝑯 𝟎 = 𝟎, 𝝉 = 𝑨𝑹𝟏
𝟏 𝑨𝑹𝟏𝒔+𝟏
▪ 𝑸 𝒔 = 𝑯 𝒔 𝑨𝒔 + =𝑯 𝒔 [ ]
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
𝝉𝒔+𝟏
▪ 𝑸 𝒔 =𝑯 𝒔 [ ]
𝑹𝟏
𝑯𝒔 𝑹𝟏
▪ = (𝟓. 𝟑𝟖)
𝑸 𝒔 𝝉𝒔+𝟏
❑ Where :
𝟐 𝒉𝒔
▪ 𝑹𝟏 = , 𝝉 = 𝑨𝑹𝟏
𝒄
 ❑ Note : The resistance 𝑹𝟏 depends on the steady state conditions
around which the process operates.
7
▪ Fig. 5–8 . Furthermore, the linear approximation given by Eq.
(5.35) is the equation of the tangent line itself.
▪ From the graphical representation, it should be clear that the linear
approximation improves as the deviation in h becomes smaller.
 ❑ Example:
▪ Linearize the Arrhenius equation for the dependence of chemical reaction rates on Temp.
8 −
𝑬
𝑲 𝑻 = 𝑲𝒐𝒆 𝑹𝑻 where 𝐊𝐨, 𝐄 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑹 are constant.If steady state Temperature is 𝟑𝟕𝟑 𝐊, 𝑲𝒐= 𝟖 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒔−𝟏
and 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒂𝒍 Write the linearized form in terms of the deviation variables.
𝒎𝒐𝒍

▪ Solution :
𝑬
−
▪ 𝑲 𝑻 = 𝑲𝒐𝒆 𝑹𝑻 𝐓𝐚𝐲𝐥𝐨𝐫 − 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝒅 𝑲 𝑻
▪ 𝑲 𝑻 = 𝑲 𝑻𝒔 + |𝑻=𝑻𝒔(𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔)
𝒅𝑻
𝑬
𝒅 𝑲(𝑻) −𝑹𝑻 𝑬 𝑬
▪ |𝑻=𝑻𝒔 = 𝑲𝒐𝒆 𝒔 ∗ = 𝑲 𝑻𝒔 ∗
𝒅𝑻 𝑹𝑻𝟐𝒔 𝑹𝑻𝒔𝟐
𝑬
▪ 𝑲 𝑻 = 𝑲 𝑻𝒔 + 𝑲 𝑻𝒔 ∗ 𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔
𝑹𝑻𝟐𝒔
𝑬
▪ 𝑲 𝑻 − 𝑲 𝑻𝒔 = 𝑲 𝑻𝒔 ∗ (𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 )
𝑹𝑻𝟐𝒔
𝑬
▪ 𝑲 𝑻 = 𝑲 𝑻𝒔 ∗ 𝑻 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐯𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐬
𝑹𝑻𝟐𝒔
▪ 𝑻𝒔 = 𝟑𝟕𝟑 𝒌, 𝑲𝒐 = 𝟖 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒔−𝟏, 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒂𝒍/𝒈𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆
𝟐𝟐,𝟎𝟎𝟎
▪ 𝑲 𝑻𝒔 = 𝟖 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒆−𝟏.𝟗𝟖∗𝟑𝟕𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐𝟕𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎 −𝟑 𝒔−𝟏
𝑬 𝟐𝟐,𝟎𝟎𝟎
▪ = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟗𝟖 ,𝑲 𝑻 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐𝟕𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟗𝟖𝑻 = 𝟖. 𝟐𝟎𝟒 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟓𝑻
𝑹𝑻𝟐𝒔 𝟏.𝟗𝟖∗𝟑𝟕𝟑𝟐
 ❑Example
9
▪ The liquid-level process shown in Fig. is operating at steady state when the

following disturbance occurs: At time t = 0, 1 ft3 water is added suddenly (unit

impulse) to the tank; at t = 1 min, 2 ft.3 of water is added suddenly to the tank.

Sketch the response of the level in the tank versus time, and determine the

level at t = 0.5, 1, and 1.5 min.

 ❑ Solution
10 𝑯 𝒔 𝑹 𝟎.𝟓
▪ = =
𝑸 𝒔 𝝉𝒔+𝟏 𝒔+𝟏
▪ 𝑸 𝒕 = 𝜹 𝒕 + 𝟐𝜹 𝒕 − 𝟏
▪ 𝑸 𝒔 = 𝟏 + 𝟐𝒆−𝒔
𝟎.𝟓 𝟎.𝟓
▪ 𝑯 𝒔 = 𝑸 𝒔 = 𝒔 = (𝟏) 𝟎<𝒕<𝟏
𝒔+𝟏 𝒔+𝟏
▪ 𝑯 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒆−𝒕 𝟎<𝒕<𝟏
𝟎.𝟓 𝟎.𝟓
▪ 𝑯 𝒔 = 𝑸 𝒔 = (𝟏 + 𝟐𝒆−𝒔) 𝒕>𝟏
𝒔+𝟏 𝒔+𝟏
▪ 𝑯 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒆−𝒕 + 𝟐𝒆− 𝒕−𝟏 𝒕>𝟏
▪ 𝑯 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒆−𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒆−𝟎.𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟑𝟐 𝒇𝒕
▪ 𝑯 𝒕 = 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒆−𝒕 + 𝟐𝒆− 𝒕−𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒆−𝟏 + 𝟐𝒆− 𝟏−𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝟒 𝒇𝒕
▪ 𝑯 𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟓 =
𝟎. 𝟓 𝒆−𝒕 + 𝟐𝒆− 𝒕−𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒆−𝟏.𝟓 + 𝟐𝒆− 𝟏.𝟓−𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟏 𝒇𝒕
 ❑Example
11 ▪ A tank having a cross-sectional area of 𝟐 𝒇𝒕. 𝟐 and a linear resistance of
𝑹 = 𝟏 𝒇𝒕./𝒄𝒇𝒎 is operating at steady state with a flow rate of 𝟏 𝒄𝒇𝒎. At time
zero, the flow varies as shown in Fig.
a. Determine 𝑸 ( 𝒕 ) and 𝑸 ( 𝒔 ) by combining simple functions. Note that 𝑸 is
the deviation in flow rate.
b. Obtain an expression for 𝑯 ( 𝒕 ) where 𝑯 is the deviation in level.
c. Determine 𝑯 ( 𝒕 ) at 𝒕 = 𝟐 and 𝒕 = ꝏ .
 𝒇𝒕
▪ 𝑨 = 𝟐𝒇𝒕𝟐 ,𝑹=𝟏 𝒒𝒔 = 𝟏𝒄𝒇𝒎 𝝉 = 𝑨𝑹 = 𝟐 𝟏 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒊𝒏
12 𝒄𝒇𝒎

a. 𝐐 𝐭 = 𝐭𝐮 𝐭 − 𝐭 − 𝟏 𝐮(𝐭 − 𝟏)
𝟏 𝟏 −𝒔
▪ 𝑸 𝒔 = 𝒔𝟐
−
𝒔𝟐
𝒆
𝑯 𝒔 𝑹 𝟏
▪ = =
𝑸 𝒔 𝝉𝒔+𝟏 𝟐𝒔+𝟏
𝟏
▪ 𝑯 𝒔 =( )( 𝟏 − 𝟏 −𝒔
𝒆 )
𝟐𝒔+𝟏 𝒔𝟐 𝒔𝟐

𝟏 𝒆−𝒔
▪ 𝑯 𝒔 = −
𝒔𝟐(𝟐𝒔+𝟏) 𝒔𝟐(𝟐𝒔+𝟏)
𝟏/𝟐 𝒆−𝒔/𝟐
= − =
𝒔𝟐(𝒔 + 𝟏/𝟐) 𝒔𝟐(𝒔 + 𝟏/𝟐)
−𝐭 − 𝐭−𝟏
b. 𝐇 𝐭 = 𝐭−𝟐 𝟏−𝐞 𝟐 − [(𝐭 − 𝟏) − 𝟐 𝟏 − 𝐞 𝟐 ] 𝐭>𝟏
−𝒕
▪ 𝑯 𝒕 = 𝒕−𝟐 𝟏−𝒆 𝟐 𝒕<𝟏
 −𝐭 − 𝐭−𝟏
c. 𝐇 𝐭 = 𝐭 − 𝟐 𝟏 − 𝐞 𝟐 − [(𝐭 − 𝟏) − 𝟐 𝟏 − 𝐞 𝟐 ] 𝐭>𝟏
13
𝟐 𝟐−𝟏
− −
▪ 𝐇 𝐭=𝟐 =𝟐−𝟐 𝟏−𝐞 𝟐 − 𝟐−𝟏 −𝟐 𝟏−𝐞 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝟒 𝐟𝐭.
−𝐭 − 𝐭−𝟏
b. 𝐇 𝐭 = ∞ = 𝐭 − 𝟐 𝟏 − 𝐞 𝟐 − [(𝐭 − 𝟏) − 𝟐 𝟏 − 𝐞 𝟐 ]
▪ 𝐇 𝐭 = ∞ = 𝐭 − 𝟐 𝟏 − 𝐭 + 𝟏 + 𝟐 𝟏 ] = 𝟏 𝐟𝐭 or
𝟏 𝒆−𝒔
▪ 𝑯(𝒕 = ∞) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐇 𝐬 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 − =𝟏
𝐬→𝟎 𝐬→𝟎 𝒔 (𝟐𝒔+𝟏) 𝒔 (𝟐𝒔+𝟏)
 ❑Capsule Summary
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