MODULE – 4

 INTRANET SECURITY:
An intranet is a private, internal network used within an organization for
communication and information sharing among employees. Intranets, being
internal, often have higher inherent security due to restricted access.
o Restricted Access:
Intranets are typically accessible only within the organization's internal
network, limiting exposure to unauthorized individuals.
o Firewalls and Passwords:
Firewalls help prevent unauthorized access, while passwords control access
to sensitive data on servers.
o Secure VPN Connections:
Secure Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) can grant remote access to the
intranet while maintaining security.
 EXTRANET SECURITY:
An extranet, is a private network that extends an organization's intranet to
authorized external parties, like partners, customers, or suppliers, allowing them to
access specific resources.
o Controlled External Access:
Extranets allow authorized external users, like partners or customers, access
to specific resources.
o Authentication and Encryption:
Robust authentication mechanisms and data encryption are crucial to protect
sensitive information shared with external users.
o Role-Based Permissions:
Granting access based on roles helps ensure that only authorized individuals
can access specific data or functionalities.
o Threat Detection and Mitigation:
Extranets need to be monitored for potential threats and have mechanisms in
place to mitigate them, such as intrusion detection systems and regular
security audits.
 THREATS AND PROTECTION METHODS:
Threats are actions carried out primarily by hackers or attackers with malicious
intent, to steal data, cause damage, or interfere with computer systems. A threat is
any potential danger that can harm your systems, data, or operations. In cyber
security, threats include activities like hacking, malware attacks, or data breaches
that aim to exploit vulnerabilities.
Some of the common threats are as follows:
 Virus: They have the ability to replicate themselves by hooking them to the
program on the host computer like songs, videos etc and then they travel all
over the Internet.
  Malware: Short for "malicious software," malware includes viruses, worms,
and trojans that can damage or take control of systems.
 Phishing: A technique where attackers trick users into revealing personal
information or installing malware.
 Adware: Adware is not exactly malicious but they do breach privacy of the
users. They display ads on a computer's desktop or inside individual
programs. They come attached with free-to-use software, thus main source
of revenue for such developers. They monitor your interests and display
relevant ads.
 Spyware: It is a program or we can say software that monitors your activities
on computer and reveal collected information to an interested
party. Spyware are generally dropped by Trojans, viruses or worms. Once
dropped they install themselves and sits silently to avoid detection.
Threat protection refers to security measures and solutions designed to defend
against various threats, including cyberattacks and malware, which can compromise
systems, steal data, or disrupt operations.
Some of the Protection methods are as follows:
 Firewalls:
Network security systems that control incoming and outgoing network
traffic.
 Encryption:
Transforming data into an unreadable format to protect its confidentiality.
 Access Control:
Limiting who can access specific resources or areas, ensuring only authorized
individuals have access.
 Network Security:
Measures to protect network infrastructure from threats, including firewalls,
intrusion detection systems, and security policies.
 Multi-factor Authentication (MFA):
Adding an extra layer of security by requiring multiple forms of identification
before granting access.
 Data Backup and Disaster Recovery:
Creating copies of data and having plans in place to restore it in case of data
loss or system failure.
 DATA AND MESSAGE SECURITY:
Data security is the practice of protecting digital information from unauthorized
access, corruption, or theft.
Types of Data Security:
 Access control: Restricting who can access data and what they can do with it.
 Authentication: Verifying user identities.
 Encryption: Converting data into an unreadable format, making it secure.
  Data loss prevention (DLP): Preventing data from leaving an organization's
control.
Message security ensures the confidentiality and authenticity of communications.
Types of Message Security:
 Message confidentiality: Ensuring only the intended recipient can read the
message.
 Message integrity: Ensuring the message hasn't been altered in transit.
 Message authentication: Verifying the sender's identity.
 FIREWALLS:
A firewall is a network security device designed to monitor, filter, and control
incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules. The
primary purpose of a firewall is to establish a barrier between a trusted internal
network and untrusted external networks.
Types of Firewall:
 Hardware Firewalls: Physical devices that sit between the network and the
internet, providing a centralized point of control.
 Software Firewalls: Software programs installed on individual computers or
servers, offering an additional layer of security.
 Network Firewalls: Devices that protect entire networks, acting as a barrier
between internal and external networks.
 Personal Firewalls: Software programs installed on individual devices, such
as laptops or desktops, to protect them from online threats.
Uses of Firewalls:
 Protection from Cyber attacks: Firewalls are essential for protecting
networks and individual devices from a wide range of cyber threats.
 Prevention of Data Breaches: They help prevent unauthorized access to
sensitive information, reducing the risk of data breaches.
 Content Filtering: Firewalls can be configured to filter inappropriate content,
such as blocking access to certain websites or content.
 Enforcement of Security Policies: They enforce security policies, ensuring
that only authorized traffic is allowed to pass through the network.
 CRYPTOGRAPHY:
Cryptography is a technique of securing information and communications using
codes to ensure confidentiality, integrity and authentication. Thus, preventing
unauthorized access to information.
Basic features of Cryptography are given below:
 Confidentiality: Information can only be accessed by the person for whom it
is intended and no other person except him can access it.
  Integrity: Information cannot be modified in storage or transition between
sender and intended receiver without any addition to information being
detected.
 Non-repudiation: The creator/sender of information cannot deny his
intention to send information at a later stage.
 Authentication: The identities of the sender and receiver are confirmed. As
well destination/origin of the information is confirmed.
 Interoperability: Cryptography allows for secure communication between
different systems and platforms.
 Adaptability: Cryptography continuously evolves to stay ahead of security
threats and technological advancements.

Advantages of Cryptography:
 Cryptography can be used for access control to ensure that only parties with the
proper permissions have access to a resource.
 For secure online communication, it offers secure mechanisms for transmitting
private information like passwords, bank account numbers, and other sensitive
data over the Internet.
 Cryptography can help firms in meeting a variety of legal requirements including
data protection and privacy legislation.

 ENCRYPTION:
Encryption is a form of data security in which information is converted to ciphertext.
Only authorized people who have the key can decipher the code and access the
original plaintext information. An encryption algorithm is a mathematical formula
used to transform plaintext (data) into ciphertext. An algorithm will use the key to
alter the data in a predictable way. Even though the encrypted data appears to be
random, it can actually be turned back into plaintext by using the key again. Some
commonly used encryption algorithms include Blowfish, Advanced Encryption
Standard (AES), Rivest Cipher 4 (RC4), RC5, RC6, Data Encryption Standard (DES), and
Twofish.
Benefits of Encryption:
 Privacy and security: Encryption ensures no one can read communications or
data except the intended recipient or data owner. This prevents attackers
from intercepting and accessing sensitive data.
 Regulations: Encrypting data allows organizations to protect data and
maintain privacy in accordance with industry regulations and government
policy. Many industries, especially those in financial services and healthcare,
have explicit rules on data protection.
  Secure internet browsing: Encryption keep users feel safer entering personal
information into webpages and carrying out financial or e-commerce
transactions.
 Encryption keeps sensitive data safe: Encryption will continue to be a core
security feature in everything from video chats to e-commerce to social
media. Both organizations and individual users would benefit from keeping on
top of encryption standards to ensure that both their personal and
professional data is safe from misuse or compromise.

 DIGITAL SIGNATURE:
A digital signature is an electronic stamp of authenticity on digital information,
ensuring it hasn't been altered and originates from the claimed sender. It uses
cryptography to create a unique "fingerprint" for a document or message, similar to
a handwritten signature but with added security and legal binding in many
jurisdictions.
Benefits of Digital Signatures:
 Authentication: Verifies the identity of the signer.
 Integrity: Confirms that the document or message hasn't been altered.
 Non-Repudiation: Provides proof that the sender signed the document,
making it difficult for them to deny their signature later.
 Security: Offers a high level of security and trustworthiness in digital
communications.
 Legally Binding: In many countries, digital signatures are considered legally
binding.

 VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK:

A Virtual Private Network (VPN) is an encrypted connection over the internet that
allows users to access a private network from a remote location securely. It creates
a secure tunnel between a user's device and a VPN server, encrypting data
transmitted between them. This encrypted connection ensures that sensitive data is
safely transmitted and prevents unauthorized access to the user's traffic.
Types of VPNs:
 Client-to-Server VPN: This type of VPN allows a single user or device to
connect to a private network.
 Site-to-Site VPN: This type of VPN allows two or more networks to connect
securely.
 Dynamic Multipoint VPN (DMVPN): This type of VPN allows multiple remote
sites to connect to a central network without going through a central server.
  Cloud VPN: This type of VPN allows users to securely connect to applications
and data hosted in the cloud.

Uses of VPN:
 Secure Remote Access: VPNs allow users to securely access their
organization's network or applications from remote locations.
 Increased Online Privacy: VPNs can mask a user's IP address and location,
enhancing their online privacy and security.
 Bypassing Censorship and Geoblocks: VPNs can help bypass censorship or
geoblocks imposed by governments or internet service providers.
 Protecting Data on Public Wi-Fi: VPNs can help protect sensitive data when
using public Wi-Fi networks, where eavesdropping is a concern.
 MODULE – 5
E – MARKETING
 TRADITIONAL MARKETING:
Traditional marketing is any form of marketing that uses offline media to reach an
audience. Basic examples of traditional marketing include things like newspaper ads
and other print ads, but there are also billboards, mail advertisements, and TV and
radio advertisements.
The challenges of Traditional Marketing are as follows:
High Costs:
Traditional marketing methods like TV and radio advertising, print media, and
billboards can be expensive, making them less accessible for smaller businesses.
Limited Audience Targeting:
Traditional marketing struggles to segment audiences and tailor messages to
specific demographics effectively, unlike digital marketing where precise targeting is
possible.
Lack of Flexibility:
Once a traditional campaign is launched, it's difficult to make changes or
adjustments to optimize performance.
Less Interactive:
Traditional marketing is primarily a one-way communication process, offering
limited interaction with the audience compared to the engagement opportunities of
digital channels.
Changing Consumer Behavior:
Consumers are increasingly shifting their attention to digital platforms, making
traditional methods less effective in reaching target audiences.
Increased Competition:
The rise of digital marketing has increased competition, making it harder for
traditional methods to stand out and capture attention.
Decline of Traditional Media:
The consumption of traditional media like print newspapers and magazines is
declining, further reducing the reach of traditional marketing.

 RETAILING IN E-BUSINESS SPACE:

Retailing in the e-business space, also known as e-retailing or electronic retailing or e-
tailing, involves businesses selling goods and services to consumers through the
internet. This includes using websites, mobile apps, and other online channels for
product display, purchase, and delivery. E-retailing offers convenience for both
consumers and businesses, allowing customers to shop from anywhere at any time
 and enabling businesses to reach a wider customer base and reduce operational
costs.
Benefits of E-retailing:
1. Global reach - because e-tailing uses the internet, it overcomes the geographical
barriers involved in traditional retailing.
2. 24/7 availability - online stores have no set business hours, meaning customers can
shop at their convenience.
3. Data analytics - make it easier to understand user behaviour, anticipate seasonal
demand, optimise customer experience and, ultimately, increase online sales.
4. Expanded product variety - because you don’t need to stock physical products as an
e-tailer, you can offer a wide range of products.
5. Targeted marketing - using customer data analytics, you can understand your target
demographics and create marketing campaigns personalised to them.

 Internet Marketing:
Internet marketing, often known as online marketing, uses digital platforms and
methods to promote brands by focusing on their target markets. It is a form of
marketing that uses the Internet to promote a brand, product, or service via social
media, search, email, and other digital channels. The goal of internet marketing is to
increase traffic to the advertiser's website through a number of methods.
Some examples of Internet Marketing are:
1. Website Content and Design:
The method of creating and spreading content in order to bring in and keep
customers is known as content marketing. Instead of focusing on selling, it
concentrates on client communication, which is usually more well-liked.
2. Email Marketing:
Email marketing is the process of sending direct marketing communications to
consumers via email in an effort to attract new clients and keep hold of current ones.
It's one of the most economical forms of marketing and may be used to target both a
large customer base and a highly specific one.
3. Social Media:
Social media marketing refers to the use of social media websites to promote a
business and its goods and services. It attempts to increase brand recognition,
enhance consumer interaction, build loyalty, and produce leads for sales. Paid
advertising and organic marketing are both components of social media marketing
strategy.
4. SEO:
SEO is the process of upgrading a website and digital content to increase its organic
or "natural" placement in search rankings. A website is more likely to be viewed by a
potential consumer if it ranks higher in search results. Effective SEO efforts need
thorough keyword research as well as the ability to develop high-quality, useful
content utilizing the selected keywords. Using relevant keywords, link-building,
making your website mobile-friendly to improve user experience, and voice search
optimization are some best practices for SEO that increase conversion rate.
5. Video and Podcasting:
Videos and podcasts are other methods to give your marketing strategy some
personality. They enable businesses to convey informative content and engage
audiences by using storytelling techniques.
6. Influencer Marketing:
Influencer marketing is the process of working with influencers to advertise your
brand's messages, products, or services. Influencer marketing is a mixture of both old
ways and new ways of marketing strategies. It takes the idea of a celebrity
endorsement into a content marketing campaign for today's time.

 Advertisement and Display on the Internet:

Display ads are advertisements that are delivered online that combine copy, visual
elements, and call to action messaging that link to a landing page. Display advertising
can help brands market their brand and products to target audiences across various
online platforms. You can usually spot display ads in designated corners of webpages
and social media platforms, and they are usually showcased in the form of a banner
ad (graphic or text). All campaigns ranging from the ones using simple text to those
with attractive videos can be grouped under display advertising.
One of the most vital features of display advertising is its ability to target specific
sections of the audience that match parameters based on the advertiser’s
requirement. The display advertising targeting feature ensures that your ad reaches
the right audience, and ad spend isn’t wasted on a demographic that isn’t interested
in your product/service.
There are some types of Display advertising:
1. Banner ads:
Images and text displayed on websites, often at the top or side of the page.
2. Rich media ads:
Interactive ads that include animations, videos, and other multimedia elements.
3. Native ads:
Ads that are designed to blend seamlessly with the surrounding content, like
recommendation widgets or in-feed placements.
4. Mobile ads:
Ads displayed on mobile devices, often within apps.

 E-Business for Service Industry:

E-business, which encompasses all commercial activities conducted online, is a powerful tool
for the service industry, allowing businesses to expand their reach, improve
efficiency, and enhance customer experience.
Examples of E-Business in the Service Industry:
1. Online education platforms: Offering courses, webinars, and other learning
resources online.
2. Telemedicine services: Providing virtual consultations and healthcare services
remotely.
3. Online entertainment platforms: Delivering personalized and interactive content to
viewers.
4. Software-as-a-Service (SaaS): Providing software applications through online
subscriptions.
5. Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems: Managing customer
interactions and data through online platforms.
6. Project Management software: Facilitating collaboration and task management
online.
7. Freelance marketplaces: Connecting freelancers with clients online.
8. E-commerce-as-a-service providers: Offering end-to-end solutions for businesses to
establish and manage their online presence.

 Electronic Data Interchange(EDI):

EDI, or Electronic Data Interchange, is a way for businesses to exchange business
documents electronically between each other using a standardized format. Instead of
relying on traditional paper documents like purchase orders and invoices, EDI uses
electronic versions. This exchange happens directly between computer systems,
streamlining communication and processes.
EDI works primarily by using two forms of transmission:
 A point-to-point or direct EDI connection connects two business systems with secure
protocols.
 The value-added network (VAN) method uses a third-party network that oversees the
data transmission process.
Benefits:
1. Save time:
Invoicing, processing purchase orders, and data entry are time-consuming in a non-
EDI environment. With EDI, you can use low-code environments to easily automate
common file processing and sharing steps, saving time and effort.
2. Reduce errors:
Because of EDI’s automatic processing, you can avoid manual data-entry errors. EDI
can also help with the detection of errors and data anomalies in documents. A higher
accuracy rate in documents further adds to data processing efficiency with this
method.
3. Increase security:
With EDI, you can better control user access and authentication. EDI uses a
combination of authentication and encryption to control that can access certain files.
The electronic system is much more secure than traditional paper-first methods.
4. Enhance connectivity:
You can use cloud-native file transfer services to share large data sets quickly and
easily with business partners, users, and vendors. EDI transactions can readily
integrate into your business processes and augment connectivity in your company.
 E-CRM:
An E-CRM system is a system that enables an organization to manage its relationship
with its customers through the Internet, social media, and other electronic channels.
It includes online marketing, online customer support, online feedback collection,
online customer retention, and built-in social media tools.
Benefits of e-CRM:
1. Increased Customer Loyalty:
By providing personalized and efficient service, e-CRM can foster customer
loyalty and reduce churn.
2. Improved Customer Satisfaction:
E-CRM enables businesses to better understand and address customer needs,
leading to higher satisfaction.
3. Reduced Costs:
Automation and improved efficiency can lead to lower operational costs.
4. Enhanced Marketing Effectiveness:
E-CRM provides tools for targeted marketing campaigns and personalized
messaging, improving marketing ROI.
5. Better Sales Performance:
Streamlined sales processes and lead management can lead to higher sales
conversion rates.
Examples of E-CRM features:
1. Customer portals: Online platforms where customers can access information,
manage their accounts, and interact with customer support.
2. Email marketing software: Tools for creating and sending targeted email
campaigns.
3. Social media management tools: Platforms for managing social media
interactions and engaging with customers online.
4. Online chat support: Real-time chat functionality for providing immediate
customer support.
5. Website analytics: Tools for tracking website traffic, user behavior, and
conversion rates.

 E-SCM:
E-SCM" stands for e-Supply Chain Management. It refers to using digital technologies
to manage and optimize the entire supply chain process, from sourcing raw materials
to delivering finished products to customers. E-SCM aims to improve efficiency,
reduce costs, and enhance transparency within the supply chain.
E-SCM encompasses various aspects of the supply chain, including:
1. Sourcing: Using digital tools to find and select suppliers, negotiate contracts, and
manage relationships.
2. Production: Optimizing manufacturing processes, managing inventory, and
ensuring timely production.
 3. Warehousing: Using electronic systems to manage warehouse operations, track
inventory, and ensure efficient storage.
4. Logistics: Utilizing electronic tools to manage transportation, shipping, and
delivery of goods.
5. Distribution: Managing the final delivery of products to customers, including
order fulfilment and returns.
Benefits of E-SCM:
1. Increased Efficiency: Automating processes, reducing manual tasks, and
improving overall efficiency.
2. Cost Reduction: Minimizing waste, reducing inventory holding costs, and
optimizing transportation.
3. Improved Transparency: Providing real-time visibility into the entire supply
chain, from sourcing to delivery.
4. Enhanced Customer Satisfaction: Accurate delivery timelines, seamless order
tracking, and efficient returns.
5. Better Collaboration: Facilitating communication and data sharing between
different stakeholders in the supply chain.
 MODULE – 6
MOBILE COMMERCE
 WIRELESS APPLICATION PROTOCOL:
The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a packet-switching protocol that is used to
access wireless data over most mobile wireless networks. WAP operates within an open
environment, and it can be created on any type of operating system. It is the preferred
method of delivering information to mobile users. The WAP datagram protocol is the core
interface of WAP architecture, which manages the transfer layer protocols of Internet
models and facilitates communications between mobile wireless networks and platforms
independent of upper-layer protocols.
ADVANTAGES OF WAP:
 WAP is a technology that moves very quickly.
 The technology is open-source and completely free.
 Multiple platforms can be used to implement it.
 Real-time data can be sent/received using WAP.
 WAP is supported by the majority of modern mobile phones and devices.
DISADVANTAGES OF WAP:
 In WAP, the connection speed is slow, and the availability is limited.
 Internet access is very sparse in some areas, and in some other areas, it is completely
unavailable.
 The system is less secure.
 User interfaces (UI) are small in WAP.

 GENERATIONS OF MOBILE WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY:

Data communication occurs in the unguided medium when the sender and receiver
are not physically connected but use the free space as a medium for transmission
using the antennas. Martin Cooper is the man behind the evolution of wireless
communication.
1G (1st Generation):
 First-time calling was introduced in mobile systems.
 It used analog signals.
 It used an FDD scheme and typically allocated a bandwidth of 25 Mhz.
 The coverage area was small.
 No roaming support between various operators.
 Low sound quality.
 Speed:- 2.4 kbps.
2G (2nd Generation):
 Shifted from analog to digital.
 It supported voice and SMS both.
 Supported all 4 sectors of the wireless industry namely Digital cellular, Mobile Data,
PCS, WLAN,
 Moderate mobile data service.
 2G WLAN provided a high data rate & large area coverage.
 Speed:- 64 kbps.
2.5G came after 2G which used the concept of GPRS. Streaming was also introduced and
mail services too. Then came 2.75G or EDGE which was faster in providing services than
2.5G. It gave faster internet speed up to 128kbps and also used edge connection.
3G (3rd Generation):
 The Internet system was improved.
 Better system and capacity.
 Offers high-speed wireless internet.
 The connection used was UMTS and WCMA.
 Speed:- 2mbps.
4G (4th Generation):
 IP-based protocols.
 LTE (Long term evaluation) was mainly for the internet.
 Vo-LTE (Voice over LTE) is for both voice and the internet.
 Freedom and flexibility to select any desired service with reasonable QoS.
 High usability.
 Supports multimedia service at a low transmission cost.
 HD Quality Streaming.
 Speed:-100mbps.
5G (5th Generation): It is yet to come in many countries but here are some notable
points about 5G.
 Higher data rates.
 Connectivity will be more fast and more secure,
 Data Latency will be reduced to a great level.
 Massive network capacity.
 It is 30 times faster than 4G.
 There would be more flexibility in the network.

 COMPONENTS OF MOBILE COMMERCE:

M-commerce, also known as mobile commerce, is the buying and selling of goods and
services via mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. Mobile commerce uses
wireless networks and mobile apps for conducting business is referred to as mobile
commerce.
Mobile commerce relies on six key components:
Mobile Commerce Applications:
These are the software programs that users interact with to browse products, make
purchases, and manage accounts.
Mobile Stations (Devices):
This refers to the physical devices used for mobile commerce, such as smartphones,
tablets, and other mobile devices.
Mobile Middleware:
This acts as a bridge between the mobile applications and the back-end systems, handling
data transfer, security, and other essential functions.
Wireless Networks:
These are the technologies that allow mobile devices to connect to the internet, such as
4G/5G cellular networks and Wi-Fi.
Wired Networks:
These are the traditional internet connections that back-end systems and servers rely on,
providing a stable and reliable infrastructure.
Host Computers:
These are the central servers that store data, process transactions, and handle other
critical functions for the mobile commerce system.
These components work together to facilitate secure and convenient transactions for
customers using their mobile devices.

 NETWORKING STANDARDS FOR MOBILES:

Networking standards define how communication occurs during transmission and between
devices. When you want devices to communicate with each other, you need to be able to
connect them, and there's a variety of ways to do that. Mobile networking standards evolve
in generations, from 1G to 5G, each offering advancements in speed, data rates, and
functionalities. Key standards include GSM (2G), UMTS/HSPA (3G), LTE (4G), and NR
(5G). These standards utilize different protocols and technologies to enable
communication.
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication): The dominant 2G standard,
widely used worldwide.
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System): A 3G standard that
evolved from GSM, providing faster data rates and improved quality of service.
HSPA (High-Speed Packet Access): An evolution of UMTS, offering higher data speeds
for mobile data.
LTE (Long Term Evolution): A 4G standard that utilizes a different radio access network
(RAN) architecture, providing significantly faster data rates and higher capacity compared
to previous generations.
NR (New Radio): The 5G standard, offering ultra-high data rates, low latency, and
increased network capacity.
A 2.5G technology that enhanced data transmission speeds within GSM.
EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution): A 2.75G technology that further
improved data speeds within GSM.
VoLTE (Voice over LTE): A technology that allows voice calls to be carried over LTE
networks.
 MODULE – 7
HTML
1. What is HTML?
HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language. It is a language used on the World
Wide Web. It is a common text formatting language utilized for designing and
displaying web pages.
2. Features of HTML:-
 It is a markup language that allows for the creation of text-based web pages.
 HTML is simple to use and understand.
 While using HTML, programmers can make a web page more interactive by
adding images, video, and audio.
 HTML is platform-independent and may be used on Windows, Linux, and
others.
 It is not case-sensitive. Tags can be used in either lower or higher case.
3. HTML Tags:-
HTML tags are the building blocks of HTML. They are used to create elements and
structure content on a web page. Tags are enclosed in angle brackets, For example,
<p> for a paragraph.
Most tags come in pairs: an opening tag <p> and a closing tag </p>.
4. HTML Formatting:-
HTML formatting is the method of formatting text to make it look and feel better. It
employs various tags to make text bold, italic and underlined.
For example:
<b> This is Bold </b>
<i> This is Italics </i>
<u> This is Underlined </u>
5. What is the difference between an element and a tag?
Tag: A tag is a part of HTML syntax used to define elements. Tags are enclosed in
angle brackets, e.g., <div>.
Element: An element consists of a start tag, content, and an end tag. For example,
<p>This is a paragraph.</p> is a paragraph element.
6. Empty Elements in HTML:-
Empty elements are HTML elements that have no content. For example, <br>, <hr>
and so on.
7. Difference between block-level and inline elements in HTML:-
Block-level elements: These elements start on a new line and take up the full width
available. Examples include <div>, <p>, and <h1> to <h6>.
Inline elements: These elements do not start on a new line and only take up as
much width as necessary. Examples include <span>, <a>, and <img>.
8. HTML Attributes:-
a. Attributes are always found inside the opening tag of a tag.
b. They provide extra information about the element, influencing how it behaves
or looks.
c. Attributes are specified using name-value pairs
(e.g., src="image.jpg" or class="main-content").
d. Attributes can control various aspects, including the source of an image, the
style of an element, the target of a link, or the parameters of a form.
9. HTML Headings:-
HTML headings are titles or subtitles that you want to display on a webpage. HTML
headings are defined with the <h1> to <h6> tags.
<h1> defines the most important heading. <h6> defines the least important heading.
Example:-
<h1>The most important heading</h1>
<h6>The least important heading</h6>
Each HTML heading has a default size. However, you can specify the size for any
heading with the style attribute, using the CSS font-size property:
<h1 style="font-size:60px;">Heading 1</h1>
10. HTML Paragraphs:-
A paragraph always starts on a new line, and browsers automatically add some white
space (a margin) before and after a paragraph.
The HTML <p> element defines a paragraph.
Example:-
<p>This is a paragraph.</p>
11. HTML Horizontal Rules:-
The <hr> tag defines a thematic break in an HTML page, and is most often displayed
as a horizontal rule. The <hr> tag is an empty tag, which means that it has no end tag.
12. HTML Break Tag:-
The HTML <br> element defines a line break. The <br> tag is an empty tag, which
means that it has no end tag.

13. HTML Links:-

HTML links are hyperlinks. You can click on a link and jump to another document.
When you move the mouse over a link, the mouse arrow will turn into a little hand.
The HTML <a> tag defines a hyperlink. The most important attribute of
the <a> element is the href attribute, which indicates the link's destination. The link
text is the part that will be visible to the reader.
Clicking on the link text, will send the reader to the specified URL address.
Example:-
<a href="url">link text</a>
14. HTML Images:-
The HTML <img> tag is used to embed an image in a web page. Images are not
technically inserted into a web page; images are linked to web pages. The <img> tag
creates a holding space for the referenced image. The <img> tag is empty, it contains
attributes only, and does not have a closing tag.
The <img> tag has two required attributes:
 src - Specifies the path to the image
 alt - Specifies an alternate text for the image

15. HTML Background Image:-

To add a background image on an HTML element, use the HTML style attribute and
the CSS background-image property:
16. HTML Tables:-
HTML tables allow web developers to arrange data into rows and columns.

Table tags:-

17. HTML Lists:-

Unordered lists:-
An unordered list starts with the <ul> tag. Each list item starts with the <li> tag.

Ordered lists:-
An ordered list starts with the <ol> tag. Each list item starts with the <li> tag.
Description lists:-
A description list is a list of terms, with a description of each term.
The <dl> tag defines the description list, the <dt> tag defines the term (name), and
the <dd> tag describes each term: