PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Part 1. First Language Acquisition

Unit 1: Language acquisition milestones

● from 0 to 3 years old.
● Grammatical Morphemes

Unit: 2 Perspectives on First Language Acquisition

● Behaviorist Perspective (Skinner)
Innatist Perspective (Chomsky)
● Interactionist Perspectives (Piaget, Vygotsky, and Brunner)
Usage-based Perspective

Part 2. Factors Affecting First Language Acquisition

Unit: 3 Barriers and Disorders

● Complications of learning a second language (aphasias and apraxias…)
● The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)
Case analysis of Genie

Part 3. Second Language Learning

Unit: 5
● Distinction between learning and acquisition
● Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition
● Behaviorist Perspective
● Innatist Perspective (Chomsky)
● Interactionist Perspectives (Piaget, Vygotsky, and Brunner)

Part 4. Second Language Learning theories

Unit: 6

● The Monitor Model (acquisition vs learning; monitor hypothesis)

● Monitor hypothesis
● The Monitor Model (Natural order; Input hypothesis)
● Affective filter hypothesis
Part 5. Factors affecting Second Language Learning

Unit: 7

Differences between first and second language

● Exposure
● error correction
● cognitive development
● interaction
● Silent period
● stress

● Stages of second language acquisition

● Silent period, early production, speech emergence, critical period hypothesis,
intermediate fluency, advanced fluency.
● Motivation
● Relationship with the cultural environment
● Fossilization
● Implicit and Explicit Learning
● Incidental and Intentional Learning
 Unit 1A. First language acquisition

Photo here

A: Guess

Answer the questions below in pairs:

● Have you ever watched a child grow and learn how to speak? Who was this child?
● Do you remember what were the first words he/she produced?
● How long did it take before the child was able to communicate with his/her parents?
● Was it easy for this child to learn his/her first language? Why/why not?

B: Context

Read Dr. Sakango’s account of observation about his child’s

language development and answer the questions.
Michael’s journey to speaking

Dr. Saranko, a biologist, had just become a father and was very excited to watch his son Michael
grow, learn, and make something of himself in the world. As he saw Michael grow and pick up
words, Dr. Saranko felt very proud, especially since Michael was his first child. He was learning
very fast and communicating in different ways. At first, crying was the only form of
communication for Michael. He cried when he was hungry or when he was in pain. Then, around
6 to 8 weeks old, he started making cute cooing sounds. Around 8 to 10 months, he was babbling
and making sounds like "bababa" and "da dada".

Around one year old, Michael began to understand simple words, like waving goodbye when
someone said "bye-bye." Between 12 to 18 months, he started saying single words like "gone,"
"dada," and "teddy" to communicate. Dr. Saranko felt so proud and overjoyed, knowing that his
son was reaching this important milestone. As Michael grew older, his vocabulary expanded. He
began saying words like "ball" and "dog" to talk about things he saw and liked. By the time he
turned two, he was starting to put words together to form short sentences, such as "more juice" or
"big truck." He also learned about saying no or expressing what he didn't want. At first, he
simply said "no" or "don't." Then, he started to use these words in longer sentences, like "don't
touch that".

At nearly three years old, Michael talked more and more. He formed full sentences and enjoyed
telling his father about his day and the things he was interested in. As Michael grew older, his
language skills continued to improve. By the age of four, he could ask questions, give
commands, report real events, and even create stories about imaginary ones. He used words
correctly and understood how to use grammar markers most of the time. It seemed like he could
say anything he wanted.

During the preschool years, Michael also learned many new words from his preschool friends
and from his teachers. Every day, he added several words to his vocabulary and started to
understand more complex sentences. He began to use language in different social situations, like
talking to strangers or playing with friends in the playground. Dr. Saranko could see his son
adapting his language depending on who he was talking to.

As Michael entered school, his language skills continued to develop. Learning to read opened up
a whole new world for him. He began to understand that words have shapes and forms, not just
meanings. He also discovered that words can have multiple meanings, which led to a love for
word jokes and riddles. One of the most remarkable things was how quickly Michael's
vocabulary expanded. He entered school already knowing thousands of words, but he continued
to learn thousands more. Reading played a big role in this. Whether he was reading for
assignments or for pleasure, he was constantly encountering new words and phrases.

● What was the first form of communication for Michael?

● How long did it take Michael to be able to speak and fully communicate?
● How did interacting with other children (at preschool) affect his language learning?
● How did going to school impact his language learning?

C: Lecture
From birth: crying

● Between 6 and 8 weeks: cooing

● Around 6–9 months: babbling (bababa, da dada)
● By one year: babies understand frequently repeated words in the language(s) spoken
around them, e.g. waving for ‘bye-bye’
● 12–18 months: One-word utterances: gone, dada, teddy
● Two years old: telegraphic speech
○ Simple sentences: Mommy play
○ Word order matters, so Baby kiss is not the same as Kiss baby
○ 50-word vocabulary
● 3 years old: speaking in full sentences
● Pre-school: Objective vocabulary expansion, social situations
● School: Abstract vocabulary expansion and dual meaning
D: Organize
In a group, organize the language children are able to produce at different ages. Use colorful
paper (sticky notes) to write the language for each year.

● 1st year
● 2nd year
● 3rd year
● Preschool
● School

E: Make a Story
In a group, make a list of the words that children in your country are able to produce from 1 year
old to school age. Then, make a story about an imaginary child learning his/her first language
similar to the one you read in Part B. Make sure to give the child character in your story a name,
and that you have a complete story. When you are ready, share the story with the class.

.F: Research

Ask your parents or a relative who has a young child the following questions and report to the
class next session.

● How easy was the experience of language acquisition?

● What were the first words?
● What were some cute mistakes you/the child made?
● What were you/was the child able to produce in each year of life from first year to 5
years old.

Unit 1B. Acquiring Grammar in the First

Language
Photo here

A: Guess
Answer the questions below in pairs:

● How do children learn the grammar of their first language?

● Could there be an order to learning the grammar (e.g. some forms of grammar are learned
first and some others are learned later)?
● What is the role of the environment in learning grammar?

B: Context

Read the text below and answer the questions.

Dr. Saranko’s Journey to Understanding the Acquisition of Grammar

To gain a better understanding of how Michael developed his first language, Dr. Saranko began
reading research papers and books on first language acquisition. According to the studies he
read, kids learn certain word parts in a particular order. One of the interesting cases studies Dr.
Saranko studied was about three kids named Adam, Eve, and Sarah.

First, they learned easy grammar like "-ing" ending verbs like "running" and adding "s" to make
things plural (like "books"). Then, they moved on to trickier things like past tense words (like
"went") and saying who owns something (like "Daddy's hat"). Questions and negative sentences
also followed this order, the children asked easy questions (water?) at first and made easy
negative statements like no water. Once they learned the easy stuff, the harder stuff came easier.
Like building blocks, each new word part helped them understand the next one better.

But, not all kids learned at the same speed. Eve was like a rocket and learned almost everything
before she turned two. But Adam and Sarah took a bit longer, which is totally okay. The
researchers tried to figure out why this happened. They thought maybe it was because some word
parts are used more often by grown-ups or because some are harder to say.

To check if kids really understood these word parts, the researchers made up a fun game called
the "wug test." They showed kids drawings of funny creatures and asked them to make up words
for them. By doing this, the kids showed they understood how to make words plural or past
tense, even for words they'd never heard before.

In the end, Dr. Saranko realized that learning to talk is like solving a puzzle. Each word part is a
piece, and as kids put them together, they unlock the magic of language, one step at a time.

● In what order did the kids learn the grammar of their first language?
● What are some easy forms of grammar children learn in your first language?
● How did the researchers describe the process of learning word parts?
 ● Is the process of learning grammar described in the story similar to how children learn
their first language in your country?

C: Lecture
**Negation:**

● 1. **Stage 1:** Children initially express negation with simple words like "no" placed at
the beginning of the utterance.

- Example: "No cookie."

● 2. **Stage 2:** Negation becomes more complex as sentences grow longer, and the
negative word typically precedes the verb.

- Example: "Daddy no comb hair."

● 3. **Stage 3:** Children begin inserting negative elements into more complex sentences,
using forms like "can't" and "don't" in accordance with English patterns, though not yet
varying them for different persons or tenses.

- Example: "I can't do it. He don't want it."

● 4. **Stage 4:** Children learn to attach the negative element to the correct auxiliary
verbs such as "do" and "be".

- Example: "You didn't have supper. She doesn't want it."

**Questions:**

● 1. **Stage 1:** Early questions are often single words or simple two- or three-word
sentences with rising intonation.

- Example: "Cookie?"

● 2. **Stage 2:** Children start asking more new questions using the word order of
declarative sentences with rising intonation.

- Example: "You like this?"

● 3. **Stage 3:** Children notice the structural differences in questions and begin forming
more complex questions.
 - Example: "Can I go? Are you happy?"

● 4. **Stage 4:** Some questions are formed by subject-auxiliary inversion, resembling

Stage 3 but with more variety in auxiliaries.

- Example: "Are you going to play with me?"

● 5. **Stage 5:** Both wh- and yes/no questions are formed correctly.

- Example: "Are these your boots? Why did you do that?"

● 6. **Stage 6:** Children can correctly form all question types, including negative and
complex embedded questions.

- Example: "Why the teddy bear can't go outside?"

D: Summarize
According to the lecture, make a summary of the acquisition of grammatical morphemes
(questions and negation) in the order that they occur.

Questions Negations

1st 1st

2nd 2nd

3rd 3rd

E: Role-play
Form a group and imagine you are a family who has a child at a certain age (2, 3, or 4 years
old). Each person in the group should take the role of a family member (father, mother, child,
etc.) and make conversation between the child and other family members using child-language,
according to the child’s age, showing the use of the grammatical morphemes you just studied.
Role-play the conversation.

F:Research
How do children learn negation and questions in your first language? Conduct research (ask
your parents or a relative with a baby about their experience, read about it online, etc.) to
understand this process. Identify at least 3 stages and give at least 3 examples. Then answer
the following question: What are the stages of negation and questions in your first language?
were the first forms of questions and negations?
 Unit 2A. The Behaviorist Perspective
Photo here

A: Guess

Answer the questions below in pairs:

● Do you know anything about behaviorism?
● Could the way parents talk affect their children’s language acquisition?
● Do children only repeat the language they hear, or do they construct language on their
own?
● Do parents make mistakes when speaking? Do children imitate those mistakes?

B: Context

Read the text below and answer the questions.

Dr. Saranko reads about the behaviorists view on first language

acquisition

As Dr. Saranko was fascinated by his discoveries about how children acquire their first
language, he decided to read more on the topic. Through studying first language
acquisition, he came across the behaviorist perspective, which simply says that children
learn language through imitation and practice. Then he wondered, if this is true, Michael
should learn his first language by repeating what he hears every day!

According to behaviorism, language learning is a process of forming habits through

consistent reinforcement. This means that when Michael correctly uses a word or
phrase, his parents should reinforce his behavior by encouraging him through nice
words like, good boy! Or by giving him candy. According to the behaviorist perspective,
the process of language acquisition is very simple: Children learn a language by
imitating what they hear, practicing it through repetition, and receiving reinforcement
from the people around them.

So Dr. Saranko did exactly that. He made sure that Michael was exposed to simple
language so he could repeat them and when he repeated or produced a short sentence
correctly, he gave him food, a toy he liked, or a compliment. It all seemed to be working
very well. But one afternoon, as Michael played with his toy animals, he pointed to a toy
rabbit and exclaimed, "Bunny eat carrots?" Dr. Saranko had never said that! Michael was
only repeating but creating his own sentences!

● What does behaviorism say about language acquisition?

● What led Dr. Saranko to look for other perspectives?
● What was the example in Michael’s speech that showed creative word construction?

C: Lecture
● Behaviorism
○ Language Acquisition through Imitation
○ Children learn language by imitating the speech of adults and peers
● Reinforcement and Practice
○ Positive reinforcement (e.g., praise, attention) encourages repetition of words
and phrases
○ Repetition and practice solidify language skills
● Stimulus-Response Mechanisms
○ Language learning as a series of conditioned responses to specific stimuli
○ Use of rewards and punishments to shape language behavior
● Environmental Influence
○ Importance of the linguistic environment and interaction with caregivers
○ Role of structured and repetitive input from the environment

● Weaknesses of Behaviorism
 ● Lack of Explanation for Novel Utterances
○ Children often produce sentences they have never heard before, which
behaviorism cannot explain
○ Examples of creative language use by children
● Overemphasis on External Factors
○ Neglect of internal cognitive processes and innate mechanisms
○ Insufficient focus on the child's active role in language learning

● Critique of Stimulus-Response Paradigm

○ Overly simplistic view of language learning as a series of responses
to stimuli
○ Lack of consideration for deeper cognitive functions and
understanding
● Role of Universal Grammar
○ Arguments for an innate, biological basis for language acquisition
(Chomsky’s theory of Universal Grammar)
○ Cross-linguistic evidence supporting innate linguistic capabilities

D: Sticky note organization

According to the lecture, what are the characteristics and shortcomings of the behaviorist
perspective? Write them on sticky notes and share them with your classmates, then answer the
following question: Is child language a product of imitation?

E: Case study: Emily’s Language Development

Emily is a 2-year-old child growing up in a bilingual household where both English and Spanish
are spoken. Her parents noticed that Emily has been learning new words rapidly in English, and
they attribute this to the extensive interaction she has with English-speaking relatives and her
daycare environment. Emily’s parents are curious about how she’s picking up language and how
reinforcement might play a role.

Observation:

At home, Emily’s parents often reinforce her attempts to say new English words by giving her
positive feedback, such as clapping or giving her favorite toy when she successfully repeats a
word. They’ve noticed that she’s more likely to use those words in the future. On the other hand,
when she mispronounces words, they gently correct her or sometimes just repeat the word
without reinforcing her mistake.

In contrast, Emily hears Spanish primarily from her grandmother, who doesn’t use the same level
of reinforcement or correction. Emily seems to be picking up fewer Spanish words than English
ones, even though she is exposed to both languages regularly.

Task

Using your knowledge of the behaviorist perspective in language acquisition, explain why Emily
is acquiring English faster than Spanish. What role does reinforcement play in her learning
process? How would a behaviorist approach explain her slower acquisition of Spanish?

F: Ask ChatGPT
Research about other theories that can explain first language acquisition. What are they called?
What do they briefly say? Make a small speech and share it with the class.

Unit 2B. The Innatist Perspective

A: Guess

Answer the questions below in pairs:

● Can you think of some words that didn’t exist a few years ago but exist now?
● How did those words emerge? Were they imitated or creatively produced?
● If new words can emerge in a language and can be made by people creatively, is it fair to
say language learning is the result of imitation as described by the behaviorist
perspective?

B: Context

Read the text below and answer the questions.

Dr. Saranko’s discontent with the behaviorists perspective

Dr. Saranko noticed that sometimes he made mistakes when speaking to Michael but
Michael did not imitate his mistakes. It seemed that Michael was imitating words
selectively. He would also invent his own words, combine familiar phrases in different
ways, and even create imaginary words. This meant that Michael didn’t just imitate
words but actively learn them and construct new ones, which is the opposite of
imitation.

So, he concluded that the behaviorist perspective was not complete and started to look
for other theories that provide a better description on how languages are acquired. In his
search for another theory, he came across the innatist perspective, which says that children are
born with the ability (innate ability) to learn language. This perspective suggests that humans
have an innate language acquisition device (LAD) in their brains that helps them understand
grammar and language rules.

This theory, supported by Noam Chomsky, suggests that the human brain is naturally able to
create and understand new sentences it has never heard before. It is also capable of learning
the grammatical rules of languages. Dr. Saranko observed that Michael seemed to grasp
complex sentence structures without much direct teaching. He realized that Michael could figure
out grammar rules from just hearing people talk. This seemed to support the innatist
perspective. The idea of universal grammar, which all humans are born with, made sense to Dr.
Saranko as he watched Michael learn.

Excited by this new understanding, Dr. Saranko embraced the innatist perspective. He now
believed that Michael’s rapid language learning was due to his innate ability, not just external
reinforcement.

● What prompted Dr. Saranko to start looking for other theories that explain first language
acquisition?
● What does the innatist perspective suggest about the first language acquisition?
● Can you describe how Michael learned complex language using the innatist
perspective?

C: Lecture

1. Innate Language Ability

- Humans are born with an inherent ability to acquire language.

- This ability is often referred to as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD).

2. Universal Grammar

- All human languages share a common underlying structure.

 - Children are born with knowledge of this universal grammar, enabling them to learn any
language.

3. Minimal Environmental Input

- While exposure to language is necessary, the complexity of language cannot be learned solely
through imitation and reinforcement.

- The innate linguistic capacity allows children to deduce grammatical rules from the language
input they receive.

4. Critical Period Hypothesis

- There is a specific window of time during which the innate language ability is most effective.

- After this critical period, language acquisition becomes significantly more difficult.

5. Rapid and Natural Acquisition

- Children can rapidly learn and understand complex sentence structures and grammatical rules
without explicit instruction.

- This process is largely unconscious and driven by the innate linguistic mechanisms.

D: Compare and contrast

How is the first language acquired according to the behaviorist and innatist perspective? In what
way are these perspectives to language acquisition different? Make an outline of the points made
by each theory and then do the comparison.

Behaviorist Innatist

Input

E: Find examples in your first language

The innatist perspective says children acquire their first language because they have the innate
ability to figure out the rules and the grammar of the language they hear. This means that they
learn the rules and then create words and sentences creatively. Think of examples of child
language use in your country that demonstrate creative ways of grammar use.

Some ideas to look for:

 ● Overgeneralization (e.g., a child saying "goed" instead of "went," applying a general
rule of past tense).
● Word Order (e.g., a child correctly forming simple sentences like "I want cookie" without
formal instruction).
● Question Formation (e.g., a child asking "Where Mommy go?" showing an innate
understanding of question structure).

F:Research
Read more about the critical period hypothesis online. What are the examples in favor of it?
What are the examples against this hypothesis? Do this research and come up with a
conclusion with your own opinion.

Unit 3A. The Interactionist and

Developmental Perspectives
A: Guess

Answer the questions below in pairs:

● If a child were to grow up in complete isolation without any human interaction, what do
you think would happen to their language abilities?
● Can you think of ways in which interacting with others might help someone learn a new
language?
● Could a child learn a language by watching TV or listening to language on the radio
without human interaction?

B: Context

Read the text below and answer the questions.

The role of interaction in language development

Dr. Saranko was amazed as he watched his son Michael learn to use more complex language
but he still felt there was more to learn. He began noticing that Michael’s language skills
improved whenever he played and interacted with others, especially with family and friends.

This observation led Dr. Saranko to research language development again, where he learned
about the interactionist perspective. According to this view, learning language is part of general
cognitive development that happens through social interaction. This perspective says that both
a child’s thinking skills and their environment are important, with a special focus on
communication, social interactions, and social growth.

One afternoon, Dr. Saranko watched Michael play with his cousin, Emma. He noticed how they
took turns talking, corrected each other, and added to each other’s sentences. Michael was
learning new words and phrases quickly, not just from adults but also from his friends. Theorists
like Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky believed language learning is a process that combines
thinking and social interaction. Piaget focused on the role of cognitive development, while
Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interactions.

Dr. Saranko realized that Michael’s biggest language leaps happened during conversations
where he received immediate feedback and had meaningful exchanges. Excited by this new
understanding, Dr. Saranko embraced the interactionist view. He saw that Michael’s language
development was a dynamic process, influenced by both his cognitive growth and his
interactions with others. This approach made sense to Dr. Saranko, as he could clearly see how
Michael’s language skills grew through a mix of thinking and social experiences.

● What did Dr. Saranko notice about Michael’s language skills during playtime with his
cousin Emma?
● Which scholar is mentioned in the story as a proponent of the interactionist perspective?
● How does the interactionist perspective differ from the innatist perspective?
● According to the interactionist perspective, what two factors are important for language
development?

C: Make an Outline
According to the text, make an outline of the points made by the interactionist perspective
regarding first language acquisition.

D: Lecture
1. Social Interaction is Crucial:

- Language development is heavily influenced by social interactions with caregivers, peers, and
others in the environment.

- Meaningful communication and engaging exchanges are vital for learning language.

2. Combination of Innate Abilities and Environmental Factors:

- While children may have some innate linguistic capabilities, the environment and social
context play a crucial role in shaping language development.
 - Language learning is seen as a collaborative process between the child and their social
environment.

3. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):

- Introduced by Lev Vygotsky, the ZPD refers to the range of tasks that a child can perform
with the guidance and support of others, but cannot yet perform independently.

- Language learning occurs most effectively within this zone, where children can receive help
from more knowledgeable others.

4. Scaffolding:

- Adults and more proficient language users provide support and scaffolding to help children
learn language.

- Scaffolding involves gradually reducing assistance as the child becomes more proficient,
allowing them to develop independence.

5. Immediate Feedback and Correction:

- Interactive environments provide immediate feedback, which is essential for correcting errors
and reinforcing correct usage.

- This feedback helps children adjust their language use and improve over time.

6. Role of Play and Social Activities:

- Play and social activities are important contexts for language learning.

- Through play, children practice language skills, negotiate meanings, and experiment with
different forms of communication.

7. Cultural and Contextual Influences: - Language development is influenced by the cultural

and contextual factors surrounding the child.

- Different social settings and cultural practices shape the way language is used and learned.

E: Find examples in your first language

Who are the main people children interact with as they grow up? (e.g., parents,
grandparents, siblings, friends, teachers, etc.)

How do these people interact with children? (e.g., storytelling, play, verbal instructions,
corrections, encouragement, etc.)
How do these interactions help children learn their first language?

F: Research
Research Piaget’s stages of cognitive development (there are four stages), summarizing each
stage in your own words. Find a real-life example for each stage from observations, your own
experiences, or reflections on interactions with younger children. Finally, create a simple chart
or diagram to organize your findings, and write a short reflection on what you learned.

Reflection Questions:

Write 3-4 sentences about what you learned from this task. Consider:

- How did finding real examples help you understand each stage?

- Which stage was most interesting to learn about, and why?

- How do you think this theory can help us understand children’s development?

Present Your Work to class

Compile your summaries, examples, and visual organizer. Be prepared to share and discuss
your findings with the class.

Unit 3B. The Usage-based Perspective

A: Guess

Answer the questions below in pairs:

● How do you think interacting with others in social settings helps you understand and use
language better?
 ● Which do you think is more important for learning language: having conversations with
others or practicing specific words and phrases repeatedly?
● How do group activities or social events, like playing games or participating in sports,
help you learn new words or ways of speaking?

B: Context

Read the text below and answer the questions.

By this Dr. Saranko had already explored the innatist and interactionist perspectives but felt
there was still more to understand. One day, he came across the usage-based perspective and
decided to delve deeper into it.

The usage-based perspective emphasizes that learning from people in the environment is not
enough but learners need to repeatedly use what they hear in various contexts. So, Dr. Saranko
began to notice how Michael learned words and phrases by hearing them used frequently and
in different situations.

Dr. Saranko also noticed that Michael often repeated phrases he heard from his favorite
storybooks and cartoons, using them correctly in new contexts. This showed how Michael was
constructing his understanding of language from actual use, reinforcing the idea that language
learning involves using the words we hear in different contexts.

Excited by these insights, Dr. Saranko embraced the usage-based perspective. He now
believed that Michael’s rapid language development was not just about innate ability or social
interaction, but also about the frequent and varied use of language in everyday experiences and
social life.

● What is the main idea of the story about Dr. Saranko and his son Michael?
● How does the usage-based perspective explain Michael’s language development?
● What did Dr. Saranko notice about Michael’s use of the term "big spoon"?
● What did Michael learn from his story book? How is that explained by the usage-based
perspective?

C: Make an Outline
According to the text, make an outline of the points made by the usage-based perspective
regarding first language acquisition.

D: Lecture
- Language Learning through Usage:

- Language acquisition is driven by the actual use of language in various contexts.

- Children learn language by hearing and using words and phrases in the environment, and by
connecting their experiences in the environment to the language used.

- Frequency and Use:

- Frequent exposure to specific language patterns helps children internalize them.

- Use of words and structures in different contexts strengthens understanding and usage.

- Construction from Specific Instances:

- Children generalize linguistic knowledge from specific instances they encounter in the
environment (their experiences).

- They build their understanding of language by abstracting patterns from repeated experiences
in the environment.

- Role of Social Interaction is not enough:

- Social interaction is essential but not enough.

- Children hear, experience, and practice language in the environment in meaningful ways.

- Focus on Real-World Application:

- Emphasizes learning language through real-world usage rather than formal instruction.

- Practical use in everyday situations is key to language development.

E: Share a story with your group

Sample …

F:Research
Sample….

Part 2. Factors Affecting First Language Acquisition

 Unit 4A. First Language Acquisition
Disorders
A: Guess

Answer the questions below in pairs:

● Do you know someone who has difficulty learning to speak? What challenges do they
face?
● Why do you think some children learn to speak faster than others?
● Can you think of any factors that might make it hard for a child to learn a language?
● Can hearing impairment affect a child's ability to acquire his/her first language?

B: Context

Read the text below and answer the questions.

One day Dr. Saranko was chatting with his neighbor, Mrs. Johnson. She mentioned her niece,
Lily, who struggled with Specific Language Impairment (SLI). According to Mrs. Johnson, Lily
had difficulty forming sentences and often mixed up words, despite being as completely healthy
and as smart as other children her age. Lily's parents were taking her to speech therapy
sessions, but progress was slow and required considerable effort.

Dr. Saranko was intrigued by this story so he began reading about language acquisition
disorders. Through reading, he realized that Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) could also
severely impact a child’s communication and social interaction skills. For example, children with
ASD might have trouble understanding non-verbal cues, maintaining eye contact, or engaging in
typical back-and-forth conversations. Some might be nonverbal, while others could have a vast
vocabulary but struggle with the pragmatics of language.

He also came across the story of a boy named Ben, who had a hearing impairment. Ben had
been born deaf and initially communicated through sign language. After receiving a hearing aid,
Ben was learning to understand and produce spoken language with the help of speech therapy.
However, the journey was challenging, and Ben had to work hard to catch up with his peers in
spoken language.

Another disorder that caught Dr. Saranko's attention was stuttering. He read about a boy named
Jake, who experienced disruptions in the fluency of his speech, characterized by repetitions,
prolongations, and blocks of sounds, syllables, or words. Jake's parents and teachers were
providing a supportive environment to help him manage his stutter, but the condition still posed
significant challenges in his daily communication.

Dr. Saranko also discovered selective mutism, a psychological disorder where a child who is
capable of speech is unable to speak in specific social settings. He read about a girl named
Olivia, who spoke freely at home but became completely silent at school. Her parents and
teachers were working together to create a supportive and non-threatening environment to
encourage her to speak.

Learning about these difficulties and their symptoms deeply affected Dr. Saranko. He realized
the importance of early identification and intervention in helping children overcome these
barriers. Inspired by these stories, he began advocating for better support systems and
resources for children with language acquisition disorders in his city.

● How does Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) affect a child's communication skills?
● What are some challenges faced by children with hearing impairments in learning
language?
● Describe the symptoms of stuttering that Jake experienced.
● What is selective mutism, and how does it affect a child's ability to speak in different
settings?
● Why is early identification and intervention important for children with language
acquisition disorders?

C: Make a Word Web

According to the text, make a word web of some of the disorders mentioned in the text along
with their symptoms and possible treatment methods. Try to use different colors for each
disorder.
D: Lecture
Types of Language Acquisition Disorders

A. Developmental Disorders

- Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD):

- Challenges in communication and social interaction.

- Symptoms include difficulty with non-verbal communication, maintaining eye contact, and
engaging in back-and-forth conversations.

- Specific Language Impairment (SLI):

- Difficulty in acquiring language despite normal cognitive development.

- Symptoms include trouble forming sentences, mixing up words, and slow progress in
language skills.

B. Neurological Disorders

- Aphasia:

- Loss of ability to understand or express speech, typically caused by brain damage.

- Symptoms vary based on the area of the brain affected but can include difficulty speaking,
understanding speech, reading, and writing.

- Dyslexia:

- Difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and poor spelling abilities.

- Symptoms include trouble reading, writing, and spelling despite normal intelligence.

C. Hearing Impairments

- Impact on Phonological Development:

 - Difficulty hearing can affect the ability to develop normal speech and language patterns.

- Symptoms include delayed speech development, difficulty understanding speech, and poor
pronunciation.

D. Psychological Factors

- Trauma or Neglect:

- Adverse experiences can negatively impact language development.

- Symptoms include delayed language skills, limited vocabulary, and difficulty with language
comprehension.

- Selective Mutism:

- An anxiety disorder where a child is unable to speak in specific social settings despite being
capable of speech in others.

- Symptoms include consistent failure to speak in certain social situations, significant

interference with educational or occupational achievement, and social communication.

E. Speech Disorders

- Stuttering:

- Disruptions in the fluency of speech, characterized by repetitions, prolongations, or blocks of

sounds, syllables, or words.

- Symptoms include frequent interruptions in the flow of speech, visible physical tension during
speech, and avoidance of speaking situations.

E: Research
Search the web about detailed conditions and symptoms of and reasons for a language disorder
and present them to class.

F: Make a presentation
Make a presentation about language disorders, symptoms, and reasons for each disorder and
present to class next session.

Unit 4B. The Critical Period Hypothesis

A: Guess

Answer the questions below in pairs:

● What do you think is meant by the term "critical period" in the context of language
learning?
● Why do you think it is more difficult for old people to learn how to work with technology
(computers, cellphones, etc.)?
● Can you think of other skills that are easier to learn at a young age?
● Do you agree with the idea that there might be a limited time frame during which certain
skills can be learned most effectively?

B: Context

Read the text below and answer the questions.

Dr. Saranko was always intrigued by the science of language acquisition. One day, while
reading a journal on linguistics, he came across an article discussing the Critical Period
Hypothesis (CPH). The hypothesis, proposed by Eric Lenneberg, suggested that there is a
specific window during early childhood when the human brain is particularly receptive to
learning language. After this critical period, language acquisition becomes significantly more
challenging.

During his research, Dr. Saranko stumbled upon the case of Genie, a girl who had been
discovered in 1970 after years of extreme isolation and neglect. Genie had been confined to a
small room and deprived of almost all human interaction from infancy until she was 13 years
old. When she was found, she had little to no language skills, raising important questions about
the Critical Period Hypothesis.

Dr. Saranko was captivated by Genie's story. Despite intensive efforts by researchers and
caregivers to teach her language, Genie struggled to acquire normal language skills. She could
learn new words and some basic grammar but never fully mastered the complexities of
language that children typically pick up effortlessly during the critical period.

Genie's case provided strong evidence for the CPH. Dr. Saranko learned that while Genie
showed remarkable resilience and some progress, her language development remained
severely limited compared to what would be expected if she had been exposed to language
from an early age. This case highlighted the importance of early language exposure and the
profound impact of missing the critical period.

However, Dr. Saranko also noted the ethical concerns raised by Genie's case. Researchers
were eager to study her to understand the effects of severe deprivation on language
development, but this often conflicted with providing her the best possible care and support. The
balance between scientific inquiry and ethical treatment of research subjects became a crucial
lesson for Dr. Saranko.

● What is the critical period hypothesis?

● Describe the conditions Genie was found in and how they affected her language
development.
● What did researchers learn from Genie's case about the importance of the critical period
for language acquisition?
● Can the case of Genie be considered strong evidence supporting the Critical Period
Hypothesis?

C: Make an Outline
According to the text, make an outline about the critical period hypothesis and the case of genie.

D: Lecture
The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)

- Definition:

- The hypothesis that there is a specific time window during early childhood when the human
brain is particularly receptive to learning language.

- Key Proponents:

- Eric Lenneberg: Proposed that the critical period for language acquisition ends around
puberty.

- Core Principles:

- Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to form and reorganize synaptic connections is greatest
during early childhood.
 - Language Acquisition: Children can acquire language effortlessly during the critical period,
while older individuals face more difficulties in achieving the same level of proficiency.

2. Evidence Supporting the CPH

- Studies of First Language Acquisition:

- Observations of children acquiring their first language naturally and rapidly within the critical
period.

- Second Language Learning:

- Differences in proficiency and fluency between individuals who learn a second language
during childhood versus adulthood.

- Neurobiological Findings:

- Research showing greater brain plasticity in young children, facilitating language learning.

3. Case Analysis of Genie

- Background: - Genie was discovered in 1970 after being subjected to extreme isolation and
neglect from infancy until age 13.

- Genie was confined to a small room, deprived of almost all human interaction, and had little
to no language exposure.

- Genie was found with minimal language skills and severe cognitive and emotional deficits.

4. Impact on Language Development

- Language Acquisition Attempts:

- Despite intensive efforts by researchers and caregivers, Genie struggled to acquire normal
language skills.

- She learned new words and some basic grammar but never fully mastered the complexities of
language.
- Support for CPH:

- Genie's limited language development despite intervention supports the idea that there is a
critical period for language acquisition.

- Her case suggests that missing the critical period can result in permanent language deficits.

#### 6. Implications of the CPH and Genie's Case

- **Early Language Exposure:**

- Emphasizes the importance of providing rich linguistic environments for children from an
early age.

- Influence on early childhood education programs and policies.

E: Share a story with your group

Sample …

F:Research
Sample….
Part 3. Second Language Learning

Unit 5A. Behaviorism and Contrastive

Analysis
A: Guess

Answer the questions below in pairs:

● Sometimes it is more difficult for old people to learn how to work with technology
(computers, cellphones, etc.), What do you think the reason is?
● Can you think of other skills that are easier to learn at a young age?
● What do you think is meant by the term "critical period" in the context of language
learning?
 ● Do you agree with the idea that there might be a limited time frame during which certain
skills can be learned most effectively?

B: Context

Read the text below and answer the questions.

Now that Michael was in middle school, Dr. Saranko thought it was the perfect time for him to
learn a second language. So, he decided to enroll Michael in a Spanish class. As Michael
began his language lessons, Dr. Saranko's curiosity about language acquisition was reignited,
but this time he focused on second language learning.

While Dr. Saranko was studying about second language learning and Michael was continuing
his Spanish classes, Dr. Saranko noticed that Michael sometimes made mistakes, which
appeared to be stemming from English, when practicing Spanish. Mistakes such as using
English word order in Spanish sentences or struggling with Spanish pronunciation. These
mistakes remind him of the behaviorist ideas of habit formation, and that the reason for those
mistakes could be habits Michael had developed while acquiring English as his first language.

So, He started studying about behaviorism, again to know more about the reasons behind
Michael's mistakes. One day he read about an article that is not included in the behaviorist
perspective but linked to it. The concept is called “contrastive analysis”. This approach, he
learned, was based on the comparison of the learner’s native language (L1) with the target
language (L2). The main idea was that by identifying the differences and similarities between
the two languages, educators could predict and address areas where learners might struggle.

The insights from contrastive analysis helped Dr. Saranko understand these errors as natural
parts of the learning process, stemming from the differences between English and Spanish.
Inspired by his new understanding, Dr. Saranko began to assist Michael with his Spanish
homework, using contrastive analysis to explain the errors and help him correct them. He
pointed out the structural differences between English and Spanish and provided Michael with
practice exercises that targeted these areas.

● What is the main idea behind the concept of “contrastive analysis”?

● How did contrastive analysis help Dr. Saranko understand Michael’s errors?
● What are some common errors that people in your country make when speaking
English? Do they stem from their first language?

C: Make an Outline
According to the text, make an outline about the contrastive analysis theory and give some
examples of the errors that stem from the differences between L1 and L2.

D: Lecture
1. **Comparison of Language Structures:**

- Contrastive analysis involves a detailed comparison of the grammatical, phonological, and

lexical structures of L1 and L2. By highlighting these differences, educators can anticipate
potential difficulties for learners.

2. **Prediction of Errors:**

- Based on the differences identified, contrastive analysis predicts specific errors that learners
are likely to make. For example, if Spanish uses a different word order than English, Michael
might initially apply English syntax to Spanish sentences, resulting in errors.

3. **Focus on Interference:**

- The theory posits that errors in L2 learning often result from interference from L1.
Understanding where these interferences occur helps in creating targeted instructional
strategies to overcome them.

4. **Development of Teaching Materials:**

- Educators can develop teaching materials that specifically address the problematic areas
identified through contrastive analysis. For instance, exercises that focus on Spanish verb
conjugations might be emphasized if they significantly differ from English..

E: Try contrastive analysis

Make a list of similarities in vocabulary/grammar/pronunciation between your first language and
English. Then try to predict easy, difficult areas of learning based on the similarities and
differences. Then predict some errors a person in your country may have. Try the following:

Compare Your Language with English

1. Find Similarities: Write down words, grammar rules, and sounds that are similar in your
language and English.
2. Find Differences: Write down words, grammar rules, and sounds that are different in
your language and English.
3. Spot Common Mistakes: Think about which parts of English will be easy or hard to
learn based on these similarities and differences and predict the errors people from your
country might make when learning English.
F:Research
1. Search:

Use Google Scholar (scholar.google.come) to find research papers on L1 (first

language) interference in English learning. Search for keywords such as:

○ "L1 transfer in English learning"

○ "[Your L1] interference in English"
○ "Common errors in English by [Your L1] speakers"
○ "Cross-linguistic influence and English language learning"
2. Select Relevant Studies:
Choose two or three articles that discuss errors in vocabulary, grammar, or
pronunciation among English learners who share your first language.
3. Summarize Key Findings:
Identify and describe the main types of errors discussed in the studies. Pay attention to
how the errors relate to your L1’s structure or rules.
4. Reflect, Compare, and Report to Class:
Compare the findings from the articles with errors you have observed in real life. Note
any similarities or differences and provide examples if possible. Then, report to class.

Unit 5B. Innatism and Error Analysis

A: Guess

Answer the questions below in pairs:

● Do you think the process of acquiring a first language differs from learning a second
language?
● Why do you think people make errors when speaking a foreign language?
● Does a person's first language influence their learning of a second language?
● Can analyzing the mistakes learners make in a new language help improve teaching
methods and learning outcomes?

B: Context

Read the text below and answer the questions.

As Michael continued his Spanish classes, Dr. Saranko observed that not all of Michael’s errors
could be explained by the differences between English and Spanish. While contrastive analysis
had helped understand some of the mistakes, there were still patterns of errors that puzzled
him. This curiosity led Dr. Saranko to remember the Innatist Perspective and its principles that
say individuals learn the rules of any language they are exposed to naturally because they have
an innate ability to learn languages. He wondered if the innatist perspective had something to
say about second language learning, so he started reading about it again.

Reading the principles of this theory, he soon realized that Michael’s errors were not just habits
from his first language but also part of his innate process of mapping out the new language's
rules. He learned about three views of second language learning: the first suggests that the
mechanisms used to learn a first language (L1) are the same as those used to learn a second
language (L2), with the same innate processes applying, allowing the learner to acquire L2
naturally with sufficient exposure and interaction. The second perspective acknowledges that
while the basic mechanisms are similar, there may be some differences due to the influence of
the first language and other external factors, but the underlying innate capabilities still play a
crucial role. The third view argues that acquiring a second language involves different cognitive
processes than those used for the first language, particularly due to the learner’s age and the
established knowledge of L1.

Dr. Saranko decided to delve deeper into reading and came across “error analysis”. Through
reading about error analysis, he realized that this is a method used to identify, categorize, and
understand the errors that language learners make. Then he wondered, couldn’t he understand
the challenges Michael faces in learning Spanish by analyzing the types of errors Michael
makes?

Dr. Saranko started by systematically collecting samples of Michael's spoken and written
Spanish. He categorized the errors into grammatical, lexical, phonological, and syntactic types.
Through this detailed analysis, he began to see patterns that were not immediately apparent
through contrastive analysis alone. For instance, Michael often overgeneralized Spanish
grammatical rules, a sign that he was actively forming hypotheses about the new language's
structure.

By combining the insights from error analysis with the principles of the Innatist Perspective, Dr.
Saranko developed a more comprehensive understanding of Michael's language learning
journey. He tailored his teaching methods to address not only the specific errors but also to
support Michael's natural language acquisition processes. This holistic approach helped
Michael make significant progress in his Spanish learning, demonstrating the value of
integrating error analysis with an understanding of innate language learning capabilities.

● What is the Innatist Perspective on language learning?

● What prompted Dr. Saranko to revisit the Innatist Perspective?
● What are the three views of second language learning mentioned in the text?
● What method did Dr. Saranko come across to better understand Michael's errors?
● How did Dr. Saranko use the insights from error analysis and the Innatist Perspective to
help Michael?

C: Make an Outline
According to the text, make an outline about the innatist perspective and error analysis.
D: Lecture
### Outline of the Innatist Perspective and Error Analysis Core Principles in Second Language
Learning

#### I. Introduction

- Brief overview of second language learning theories

- Importance of understanding different perspectives for effective language teaching

#### II. Innatist Perspective

1. **Core Principles**

- Innate Language Learning Ability: The belief that humans are born with an inherent capacity
to learn languages.

- Universal Grammar: The theory that all human languages share a common underlying
structure.

- Natural Acquisition: The idea that exposure to a language naturally leads to the acquisition of
its rules and structures.

2. Key Theorists

- Noam Chomsky: Introduction of the concept of Universal Grammar.

3. Applications in Second Language Learning

- Similar Mechanisms for L1 and L2: Learning a second language uses the same innate
mechanisms as the first language.

- Influence of Age: The critical period hypothesis and its implications for second language
acquisition.

- Role of Exposure and Interaction: Importance of sufficient exposure and meaningful

interaction in learning a second language.
4. Views Within the Innatist Perspective

- **View 1:** Same mechanisms for L1 and L2.

- **View 2:** Basic mechanisms are similar, but L1 influences L2 learning.

- **View 3:** Different cognitive processes for L2, influenced by age and established L1
knowledge.

III. Error Analysis

1. Core Principles

- Identification of Errors: Systematic collection and categorization of language learner errors.

- Understanding Errors: Analyzing errors to understand underlying processes and hypotheses

formed by learners.

- Types of Errors: Grammatical, lexical, phonological, and syntactic errors.

2. Methodology

- Data Collection: Gathering samples of learner language (spoken and written).

- Error Categorization: Classifying errors into different types.

- Analysis and Interpretation: Identifying patterns and possible causes of errors.

3. Applications in Language Teaching

- Diagnostic Tool: Using error analysis to diagnose learner difficulties.

- Tailoring Instruction: Adapting teaching methods to address specific error patterns.

- Supporting Natural Acquisition: Integrating insights from error analysis with principles of
natural language acquisition.

E: Try Error Analysis

Activity Description: Analyzing L1-Influenced Errors

Investigate common English language mistakes made by English language learners in your
country. By identifying real examples of errors, students will analyze the underlying causes
using a predefined list of reasons, such as L1 transfer, fossilization, and grammar knowledge
gaps, you can understand the errors better and provide effective corrective feedback in your
teaching practice.

1. Identify Common Errors:

Collect 5-7 examples of common mistakes made by English learners who share your
first language (L1). These can come from classmates, friends, or personal observations.
Focus on areas such as vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.

2. Analyze the Errors:

For each mistake, describe the error and provide the correct version.

3. Connect to Reasons:
Use the predetermined list of possible reasons below to analyze each error. Identify
which reason(s) best explain each mistake.

List of Common Reasons for Errors:

● L1 Transfer: Applying L1 grammar or vocabulary rules to English.

● False Friends: Words that look similar in both languages but have different meanings.
● Pronunciation Influence: Using L1 sound patterns when speaking English.
● Overgeneralization: Applying a general rule to an exception (e.g., "goed" instead of
"went").
● Lack of L1 Equivalent: Using incorrect words due to missing direct translations.
● Fossilization: Repeatedly making the same error, even after correction.
● Stress and Anxiety: Making errors due to nervousness or pressure when using English.
● Grammar Knowledge Gaps: Errors caused by incomplete understanding of English
grammar rules.

F: Research how to give Corrective Feedback

Explore strategies for addressing common errors in English learning. Your goal is to investigate
different types of corrective feedback used to help learners overcome these mistakes and report
to class.

Steps to Complete the Task:

1. Search for Research Articles:
Use Google Scholar (scholar.google.com) or other academic databases to find studies
on corrective feedback in language learning. Suggested keywords include:

○ "Corrective feedback in ESL/EFL"

○ "Types of corrective feedback"
○ "Error correction in language learning"
○ "Effectiveness of corrective feedback"
 2. Identify Feedback Types:
From your selected articles, identify and describe at least three types of corrective
feedback (e.g., explicit correction, recasts, metalinguistic feedback).

3. Analyze Effectiveness:
Summarize how each feedback type works and discuss which kinds of errors it
addresses best. Consider factors such as learner level, error type, and learning context.

Unit 6A. The Monitor Model

A: Guess

Discuss the questions below in pairs:

● Studying grammar rules or using the language in daily situations, which is a better way to
learn a foreign language?
● When speaking in a foreign language, do you sometimes correct your sentences?
● Do emotions (e.g. feeling comfortable, stressed, anxious,) play a role in learning and
performance in a foreign language?

B: Context

Read the text below and answer the questions.

As time passed, Dr. Saranko noticed Michael was becoming more fluent and confident in
speaking Spanish. Michael seemed to be learning Spanish in a way similar to how he had
learned English—only with some mistakes in his speech. One day, Dr. Saranko came across a
video on YouTube where a professor named Dr. Krashen explained the difference between
learning and acquisition. The video intrigued him, so he decided to read more about Dr.
Krashen’s work.

While reading Dr. Krashen’s theories, Dr. Saranko discovered the Monitor Model, which
emphasizes the difference between "acquisition" which refers to acquiring a language in the
environment naturally and "learning" which means learning a language by studying or taking
classes. He realized that Michael had been learning Spanish naturally, rather than simply
memorizing grammar rules. Then he started talking to Michael’s teacher. The teacher said: "We
immerse students in meaningful conversations and stories," the teacher explained, "so they can
pick up the language the way they did their first language."

The teacher also explained how "comprehensible input", another part of the Monitor Model,
played a key role in Michael’s progress. He designed activities that provided input just slightly
above Michael’s current level—what Krashen calls "i+1." This allowed Michael to understand
most of what he encountered while being challenged to learn new vocabulary and structures.
For example, the class would listen to stories, watch short videos, or read simplified articles,
and then discuss them in Spanish.

Dr. Saranko was curious about how mistakes were corrected, so he asked the teacher about it.
The teacher smiled and shared how Krashen’s "Monitor Hypothesis" guided when to correct
students. This theory says that learners will gradually be able to monitor their own performance
if they have enough time to think about it and that fluency and having the opportunity to speak
and use the language should be prioritized over correction. "We let the students focus on
speaking freely first," the teacher said, "and only use corrections when it’s necessary for clarity
or grammar practice. Overcorrecting can cause students to depend too much on their 'monitor,'
and that slows down their natural learning process."

Finally, the teacher explained the "affective filter." He emphasized the importance of creating a
low-stress, supportive classroom environment. Activities like games, role plays, and group
discussions helped Michael feel comfortable and motivated to participate. "When students are
relaxed and enjoying themselves," the teacher said, "they learn so much more."

After hearing this, Dr. Saranko realized how thoughtfully Michael’s teacher had applied
Krashen’s ideas. He left the conversation inspired, thinking about how these principles could
enhance his own teaching.

● How can exposure to language contribute to a student's language learning progress?

● How does providing input that is just slightly above a student's current level help
them improve their foreign language?
● What role does a student's emotional state play in their ability to learn a new
language?
● Why might it be harmful to constantly correct students’ mistakes while speaking a
foreign language?

D: Lecture
The key components of the Monitor Model:

● Acquisition vs. Learning:

○ Acquisition refers to the natural, subconscious process of picking up a language

through exposure and meaningful interaction.
○ Learning involves explicit, conscious knowledge of language rules, typically
gained through formal instruction.
● The Monitor Hypothesis:

○ The "monitor" is the conscious thought process that checks and corrects
language output.
○ The monitor only works when the learner has time to think about the rule,
focuses on correctness, and knows the rule.
○ Overuse of the monitor can slow down natural language production.
 ● The Input Hypothesis:

○ Language learners acquire language when they are exposed to input that is
slightly beyond their current level (i+1).
○ Input should be understandable but still challenging, promoting growth without
overwhelming the learner.
● The Affective Filter Hypothesis:

○ Emotional factors (such as motivation, anxiety, and confidence) influence the

success of language learning.
○ A low-affective filter (when learners feel relaxed and motivated) promotes better
language acquisition.
● The Natural Order Hypothesis:

○ Language learners acquire grammatical structures in a predictable order, which

is similar across all learners regardless of their first language.

C: Reflection
Find examples from your own experience in acquiring your first language and learning your
second language that confirm or contradict the monitor model. Come up with five examples.
Each example should be based on one hypothesis..

F: Mindmapping
In small groups, create a mind map summarizing the key ideas of Krashen's Monitor Model
(e.g., Acquisition-Learning, Monitor, Input, Affective Filter). Present your mind map to the class,
explaining connections between the hypotheses and giving examples from their own learning
experiences.

Unit 6B. Interactionism and Feedback

A: Guess

Answer the questions below in pairs:

● Which is more beneficial to improve language skills, participating in conversations or
studying grammar rules in isolation?
● How important is social interaction in learning a new language? Why?
● Can interactions between language learners and more proficient speakers help in learning
new vocabulary or grammar structures?
● How can teachers create opportunities for meaningful interaction in the classroom?

B: Context

Read the text below and answer the questions.

As Michael continued his Spanish classes, Dr. Saranko noticed Michael was making fewer and
fewer mistakes when speaking Spanish. This led him to speak with Michael’s teacher and thank
him for his great work. Dr. Saranko was also curious to know why Michael’s Spanish was
improving so fast. When speaking with Michael’s teacher, he learned that the teacher was using
fun and interactive activities in the class.

The teacher explained that working with classmates was a big part of Michael’s progress.
Students often practiced together in pairs or small groups, having conversations to improve their
Spanish. These activities helped them work together and learn from one another. Michael
especially benefited from this because talking with his classmates gave him a chance to try out
new words and grammar in a relaxed way. These conversations made him more confident and
comfortable speaking Spanish in everyday situations.

The teacher also talked about how correcting mistakes helped students get better. He explained
that he used different methods depending on the mistake and the situation. For example, if a
mistake needed to be fixed right away, he would directly point it out and explain the correct way
to say it. Other times, he would repeat Michael’s sentence with the mistake corrected, so
Michael could hear how it should sound. Sometimes, he gave little hints about the rules to help
Michael figure out the right answer himself. Another method was to ask Michael questions or
pause in a sentence to give him a chance to fix his own mistake. Dr. Saranko found these
techniques interesting and realized how important it is to give corrections in a way that helps
students learn without making them feel discouraged.

These activities and corrections created a positive and helpful classroom environment that
helped Michael improve his Spanish skills.

● How did peer interaction in Michael's Spanish class help him improve his speaking
skills?
● What types of activities did Michael participate in with his classmates, and why were
they beneficial for his language learning?
● How did the teacher’s corrective feedback support Michael’s language development
during conversations?
 ● What strategies did the teacher use to encourage Michael to self-correct his mistakes,
and how do these strategies connect to active engagement in learning?

D: Lecture
Key features of the interactionist perspective in second language learning:

● Emphasis on Interaction: Learning occurs through meaningful communication and

social interaction between speakers, including both native and non-native users of the
language.

● Negotiation of Meaning: Interaction helps learners notice gaps in their understanding

as they clarify, rephrase, and request explanations during conversations.

● Comprehensible Input: Learners acquire language when they are exposed to input that
is slightly beyond their current proficiency level but made understandable through
interaction (linked to Krashen’s Input Hypothesis).

● Output and Feedback: Producing language (output) and receiving corrective feedback
in conversational exchanges facilitate the learning process, highlighting errors and
encouraging self-correction. This is in accordance to ZPD where a more knowledgeable
person helps another person improve a skill.

● Role of Scaffolding and ZPD: Interaction partners, such as teachers or more proficient
speakers, provide temporary support to help learners reach higher levels of linguistic
competence.

● Focus on the Social Context: Language acquisition is embedded in the cultural and
situational context of communication, which shapes the use of linguistic structures.

C: Make teaching activities

According to the text, make teaching activities and correction strategies that are based on the
interactionist perspective.

F: Reflect
How can the interactionist perspective be applied to the teaching/learning context in your
country (e.g. schools, universities). Analyze the current situation, find areas of improvement and
suggest improvements based on this perspective.
 Unit 7A. The Cognitive Perspective
A: Guess

Answer the questions below in pairs:

● Which method of teaching do you prefer, lectures or interacting in groups with
classmates? Why?
● When you listen to a teacher explaining a concept, do you take notes to remember the
concepts better? Why/why not?
● What do you do when a concept explained in your class is very difficult to understand?

B: Context

Read the text below and answer the questions.

One day, Dr. Saranko was speaking with a colleague, Dr. Elena Ruiz, an expert in education
and second language teaching. He mentioned Michael’s impressive progress in learning
Spanish and Dr. Ruiz explained that progress using the cognitive perspective in second
language learning. Dr. Ruiz explained that the interactive nature of Michael's classes are not
only important in terms of social interaction, but also stimulate students’ cognition. She
explained: “students often work together in pairs or small groups, doing activities like role-
playing conversations or solving problems in Spanish. These tasks give them opportunities to
figure out how to express their ideas. When someone doesn’t understand, they collaborate to
find a solution. This process of negotiation is incredibly powerful—it encourages deeper thinking
and helps students use the language more effectively in real situations.”
Dr. Ruiz then shared another important concept, noticing. She explained that students lear a
language through noticing its key features. “For example, if a new grammar rule is being
introduced, the teacher highlights it in a reading passage or repeats examples during a listening
activity. By drawing attention to these patterns, students start to see the structure behind the
language. Michael is interested in these details so he pays attention, which makes a big
difference in his progress.”

She also talked about how students are guided to focus on both the meaning and form of
sentences. “At first, learners naturally prioritize understanding the meaning. That’s a good thing
because it helps them connect with the language. However, structured activities guide them to
also pay attention to forms, like verb conjugations or sentence structure. This balance is crucial
and is part of what we call Input Processing—helping learners notice both the message and
the grammar.”

When Mr. Saranko asked about how lessons were sequenced, Dr. Ruiz explained that grammar
instruction followed a logical progression. “Not everything can be learned at once,” she said.
“For example, students might first learn simple sentence patterns, like ‘I like apples,’ before
moving on to more complex grammar, like describing past events. This approach, tied to
Processability Theory, respects the natural stages of language development. It ensures
students aren’t overwhelmed and builds their confidence step by step.”

Finally, Dr. Ruiz emphasized the importance of practice. “Michael’s teacher is great at
combining controlled practice, like filling in verb forms, with more open-ended activities, like
telling a story or giving opinions. This combination helps students first understand the rules and
then apply them in realistic ways. Over time, practice makes using the language feel natural and
automatic.”

Mr. Saranko left their conversation inspired by how thoughtful and research-based teaching
strategies were helping Michael thrive. He realized that interactive tasks, drawing attention to
language patterns, balancing meaning and form, and scaffolding grammar learning weren’t just
effective techniques—they were the foundation of successful language learning.

● What kind of activities does Dr. Ruiz say are beneficial for students' cognition and
language use?
● What is the concept of "noticing," and how does it help language learners?
● According to Dr. Ruiz, how does Input Processing balance meaning and form?
● What is Processability Theory, and how does it influence grammar instruction?
● How does Michael's interest in language details contribute to the effectiveness of the
noticing process?

D: Lecture

Key Features of the Theories

Interaction Hypothesis

● Language learning happens through meaningful interaction with others.

● Negotiation of meaning (clarifying, correcting, rephrasing) helps learners process
language deeply.
● Speaking and listening during interaction build confidence and fluency.
 Noticing Hypothesis

● Learners must notice language features (e.g., grammar rules, word patterns) to learn
them.
● Repetition, highlighting, or drawing attention to specific forms can make learners aware
of key structures.
● Noticing bridges the gap between exposure to language and its actual use.

Input Processing

● Learners focus on meaning first, often overlooking grammatical forms.

● Structured activities help shift attention from meaning to form (e.g., verb endings, word
order).
● Balancing meaning and form aids comprehension and production.

Processability Theory

● Learners can only acquire certain language structures when they are cognitively ready.
● Teaching follows a natural sequence, starting with simpler grammar and progressing to
more complex forms.
● Gradual learning builds confidence and avoids overwhelming learners.

Role of Practice

● Controlled practice (e.g., drills, fill-in-the-blank tasks) helps learners master rules.
● Open-ended practice (e.g., storytelling, discussions) allows learners to apply knowledge
in real-life contexts.
● Consistent practice leads to automatic and fluent language use.

C: Make teaching activities

According to the cognitive perspective, make teaching activities that involve interaction,
negotiation of meaning, and practice.

F: Reflect and recommend

Does/Did your language learning journey involve the elements presented in this unit (interaction,
attention, negotiation of meaning, and practice? Describe your learning journey and identify its
strengths and weaknesses. Then, suggest ways to improve the teaching practice in your
country based on the theories you learned in this unit.
 Unit 7A. The Cognitive Perspective
A: Guess

Answer the questions below in pairs:

● Which method of teaching do you prefer, lectures or interacting in groups with
classmates? Why?
● When you listen to a teacher explaining a concept, do you take notes to remember the
concepts better? Why/why not?
● What do you do when a concept explained in your class is very difficult to understand?

B: Context

Read the text below and answer the questions.

One day, Dr. Saranko was speaking with a colleague, Dr. Elena Ruiz, an expert in education
and second language teaching. He mentioned Michael’s impressive progress in learning
Spanish and Dr. Ruiz explained that progress using the cognitive perspective in second
language learning. Dr. Ruiz explained that the interactive nature of Michael's classes are not
only important in terms of social interaction, but also stimulate students’ cognition. She
explained: “students often work together in pairs or small groups, doing activities like role-
playing conversations or solving problems in Spanish. These tasks give them opportunities to
figure out how to express their ideas. When someone doesn’t understand, they collaborate to
find a solution. This process of negotiation is incredibly powerful—it encourages deeper thinking
and helps students use the language more effectively in real situations.”

Dr. Ruiz then shared another important concept, noticing. She explained that students lear a
language through noticing its key features. “For example, if a new grammar rule is being
introduced, the teacher highlights it in a reading passage or repeats examples during a listening
activity. By drawing attention to these patterns, students start to see the structure behind the
language. Michael is interested in these details so he pays attention, which makes a big
difference in his progress.”

She also talked about how students are guided to focus on both the meaning and form of
sentences. “At first, learners naturally prioritize understanding the meaning. That’s a good thing
because it helps them connect with the language. However, structured activities guide them to
also pay attention to forms, like verb conjugations or sentence structure. This balance is crucial
and is part of what we call Input Processing—helping learners notice both the message and
the grammar.”

When Mr. Saranko asked about how lessons were sequenced, Dr. Ruiz explained that grammar
instruction followed a logical progression. “Not everything can be learned at once,” she said.
“For example, students might first learn simple sentence patterns, like ‘I like apples,’ before
moving on to more complex grammar, like describing past events. This approach, tied to
Processability Theory, respects the natural stages of language development. It ensures
students aren’t overwhelmed and builds their confidence step by step.”

Finally, Dr. Ruiz emphasized the importance of practice. “Michael’s teacher is great at
combining controlled practice, like filling in verb forms, with more open-ended activities, like
telling a story or giving opinions. This combination helps students first understand the rules and
then apply them in realistic ways. Over time, practice makes using the language feel natural and
automatic.”

Mr. Saranko left their conversation inspired by how thoughtful and research-based teaching
strategies were helping Michael thrive. He realized that interactive tasks, drawing attention to
language patterns, balancing meaning and form, and scaffolding grammar learning weren’t just
effective techniques—they were the foundation of successful language learning.

● What kind of activities does Dr. Ruiz say are beneficial for students' cognition and
language use?
● What is the concept of "noticing," and how does it help language learners?
● According to Dr. Ruiz, how does Input Processing balance meaning and form?
● What is Processability Theory, and how does it influence grammar instruction?
● How does Michael's interest in language details contribute to the effectiveness of the
noticing process?

D: Lecture

Key Features of the Theories

Interaction Hypothesis

● Language learning happens through meaningful interaction with others.

● Negotiation of meaning (clarifying, correcting, rephrasing) helps learners process
language deeply.
● Speaking and listening during interaction build confidence and fluency.

Noticing Hypothesis

● Learners must notice language features (e.g., grammar rules, word patterns) to learn
them.
● Repetition, highlighting, or drawing attention to specific forms can make learners aware
of key structures.
● Noticing bridges the gap between exposure to language and its actual use.
 Input Processing

● Learners focus on meaning first, often overlooking grammatical forms.

● Structured activities help shift attention from meaning to form (e.g., verb endings, word
order).
● Balancing meaning and form aids comprehension and production.

Processability Theory

● Learners can only acquire certain language structures when they are cognitively ready.
● Teaching follows a natural sequence, starting with simpler grammar and progressing to
more complex forms.
● Gradual learning builds confidence and avoids overwhelming learners.

Role of Practice

● Controlled practice (e.g., drills, fill-in-the-blank tasks) helps learners master rules.
● Open-ended practice (e.g., storytelling, discussions) allows learners to apply knowledge
in real-life contexts.
● Consistent practice leads to automatic and fluent language use.

C: Make teaching activities

According to the cognitive perspective, make teaching activities that involve interaction,
negotiation of meaning, and practice.

F: Reflect and recommend

Does/Did your language learning journey involve the elements presented in this unit (interaction,
attention, negotiation of meaning, and practice? Describe your learning journey and identify its
strengths and weaknesses. Then, suggest ways to improve the teaching practice in your
country based on the theories you learned in this unit.

Unit 7A. The Cognitive Perspective

A: Guess

Answer the questions below in pairs:

● Which method of teaching do you prefer, lectures or interacting in groups with
classmates? Why?
 ● When you listen to a teacher explaining a concept, do you take notes to remember the
concepts better? Why/why not?
● What do you do when a concept explained in your class is very difficult to understand?

B: Context

Read the text below and answer the questions.

One day, Dr. Saranko was speaking with a colleague, Dr. Elena Ruiz, an expert in education
and second language teaching. He mentioned Michael’s impressive progress in learning
Spanish and Dr. Ruiz explained that progress using the cognitive perspective in second
language learning. Dr. Ruiz explained that the interactive nature of Michael's classes are not
only important in terms of social interaction, but also stimulate students’ cognition. She
explained: “students often work together in pairs or small groups, doing activities like role-
playing conversations or solving problems in Spanish. These tasks give them opportunities to
figure out how to express their ideas. When someone doesn’t understand, they collaborate to
find a solution. This process of negotiation is incredibly powerful—it encourages deeper thinking
and helps students use the language more effectively in real situations.”

Dr. Ruiz then shared another important concept, noticing. She explained that students lear a
language through noticing its key features. “For example, if a new grammar rule is being
introduced, the teacher highlights it in a reading passage or repeats examples during a listening
activity. By drawing attention to these patterns, students start to see the structure behind the
language. Michael is interested in these details so he pays attention, which makes a big
difference in his progress.”

She also talked about how students are guided to focus on both the meaning and form of
sentences. “At first, learners naturally prioritize understanding the meaning. That’s a good thing
because it helps them connect with the language. However, structured activities guide them to
also pay attention to forms, like verb conjugations or sentence structure. This balance is crucial
and is part of what we call Input Processing—helping learners notice both the message and
the grammar.”

When Mr. Saranko asked about how lessons were sequenced, Dr. Ruiz explained that grammar
instruction followed a logical progression. “Not everything can be learned at once,” she said.
“For example, students might first learn simple sentence patterns, like ‘I like apples,’ before
moving on to more complex grammar, like describing past events. This approach, tied to
Processability Theory, respects the natural stages of language development. It ensures
students aren’t overwhelmed and builds their confidence step by step.”
Finally, Dr. Ruiz emphasized the importance of practice. “Michael’s teacher is great at
combining controlled practice, like filling in verb forms, with more open-ended activities, like
telling a story or giving opinions. This combination helps students first understand the rules and
then apply them in realistic ways. Over time, practice makes using the language feel natural and
automatic.”

Mr. Saranko left their conversation inspired by how thoughtful and research-based teaching
strategies were helping Michael thrive. He realized that interactive tasks, drawing attention to
language patterns, balancing meaning and form, and scaffolding grammar learning weren’t just
effective techniques—they were the foundation of successful language learning.

● What kind of activities does Dr. Ruiz say are beneficial for students' cognition and
language use?
● What is the concept of "noticing," and how does it help language learners?
● According to Dr. Ruiz, how does Input Processing balance meaning and form?
● What is Processability Theory, and how does it influence grammar instruction?
● How does Michael's interest in language details contribute to the effectiveness of the
noticing process?

D: Lecture

Key Features of the Theories

Interaction Hypothesis

● Language learning happens through meaningful interaction with others.

● Negotiation of meaning (clarifying, correcting, rephrasing) helps learners process
language deeply.
● Speaking and listening during interaction build confidence and fluency.

Noticing Hypothesis

● Learners must notice language features (e.g., grammar rules, word patterns) to learn
them.
● Repetition, highlighting, or drawing attention to specific forms can make learners aware
of key structures.
● Noticing bridges the gap between exposure to language and its actual use.

Input Processing

● Learners focus on meaning first, often overlooking grammatical forms.

● Structured activities help shift attention from meaning to form (e.g., verb endings, word
order).
● Balancing meaning and form aids comprehension and production.

Processability Theory

● Learners can only acquire certain language structures when they are cognitively ready.
● Teaching follows a natural sequence, starting with simpler grammar and progressing to
more complex forms.
 ● Gradual learning builds confidence and avoids overwhelming learners.

Role of Practice

● Controlled practice (e.g., drills, fill-in-the-blank tasks) helps learners master rules.
● Open-ended practice (e.g., storytelling, discussions) allows learners to apply knowledge
in real-life contexts.
● Consistent practice leads to automatic and fluent language use.

C: Make teaching activities

According to the cognitive perspective, make teaching activities that involve interaction,
negotiation of meaning, and practice.

F: Reflect and recommend

Does/Did your language learning journey involve the elements presented in this unit (interaction,
attention, negotiation of meaning, and practice? Describe your learning journey and identify its
strengths and weaknesses. Then, suggest ways to improve the teaching practice in your
country based on the theories you learned in this unit.

Unit 8A. Differences in Acquiring a first

language and learning a second language
A: Guess

Answer the questions below in pairs:

● What are some differences in learning a first and second language (Acquisition vs
learning, learner’s knowledge of language before learning, cognitive abilities, etc?
● How does exposure to language differ in acquiring a first language and learning the
second language?
● Why do you think children often find it easier to learn a new language than adults?
● What challenges do adult learners face when learning a second language?

B: Context

Read the text below and answer the questions.

Inspired by Michael's success in acquiring his first language and his talent in learning a second
language (Spanish), Dr. Saranko decided to learn Spanish too. However, a few weeks after he
started his classes, he noticed learning Spanish was very difficult for him. This was surprising to
him because Michael seemed to learn without noticeable difficulty. So, he decided to share his
frustrations with Dr. Elena Ruiz, an expert in education and second language teaching.

Dr. Ruiz explained that Michael’s learning environment was different. Michael was immersed
with his first language (English) and was exposed to Spanish through classes, social
interactions with Spanish speaking neighbors, and even cartoons for hours every day. But, Dr.
Saranko’s exposure was limited to a few hours of class each week. Michael’s Spanish classes
used interactive, low-pressure activities like games, songs, coloring, and making crafts, which
promoted natural communication. In contrast, adult learners often feel pressured to speak in
class, and feel down when they get corrected.

Feedback differences also mattered. Dr. Saranko didn’t correct Michael when he
mispronounced something in English and Michael’s friends didn’t care if he made mistakes
while speaking Spanish. Children focus on communication and do not worry about making
mistakes. However, adult learners often worry about making mistakes when speaking in classes
and teachers in formal classroom settings consistently correct their mistakes to improve their
accuracy.

Dr. Ruiz also introduced the concept of interlanguage. She explained it as an evolving journey
of language learning whereby the learner starts speaking a foreign language using the elements
of his first language but gradually learns more about the rules of the foreign language until he
fully masters it. This means that while speaking, there may be L1 influenced errors in the
production of learners. So, without targeted feedback, some incorrect patterns from the learners’
L1 could become fixed, a phenomenon known as fossilization.

After his talk with Dr. Ruiz, Dr. Saranko realized that he needed to adjust his expectations. He
was a lot older than Michael and he was learning a foreign language so his language learning
journey was different and his progress slower. He also realized that getting corrected in his
classroom was a necessary element so he shouldn’t be worried about it. By accepting these
realities, he felt more motivated to enjoy the journey rather than focusing on the difficulties.

● How did Michael’s learning environment differ from Dr. Saranko’s?

● Why might adult learners feel more pressure in language classes compared to younger
learners?
● What is interlanguage, and how does it function in language learning?
● What is fossilization, and how can it affect language learners?

D: Lecture

Key differences
Cognitive and Attitudinal Factors

● Older learners use problem-solving and metalinguistic skills, which can aid or
hinder language acquisition.
● Younger learners rely on innate language abilities but lack cognitive maturity.
● Willingness to speak differs among individuals and age groups, with adults often
more hesitant due to self-consciousness.

Learning Conditions

● Younger learners benefit from extended exposure and naturalistic practice (e.g.,
songs, games).
● Older learners often face limited exposure in classroom settings and are required
to speak early.
● Classroom learners encounter less varied and less authentic language input
compared to natural settings.

Role of Feedback and Input

● Feedback on errors varies: grammar errors are often ignored in natural settings
unless they obstruct meaning, while classroom environments may provide more
consistent correction.
● Modified input (e.g., teacher talk, simplified speech) helps learners understand
but requires skillful adjustment to be effective.

Impact of Prior Knowledge

● Prior L1 knowledge provides insight into how languages function but may also
lead to incorrect assumptions about L2 structures, causing unique errors.
● Errors due to L1 influence highlight differences between L1 and L2 acquisition
paths.

Comparisons Between L1 and L2 Acquisition

 ● Both involve internal cognitive processes and rule development rather than
simple imitation.
● L2 learners draw from prior linguistic knowledge and cognitive skills,
distinguishing their learning path from L1 learners.
● Interlanguage: A dynamic, systematic language system reflecting elements of L1,
L2, and universal linguistic features.
○ Coined by Larry Selinker (1972), it evolves as learners process input and
adjust their hypotheses about L2.
○ Errors reflect learners’ developing understanding of L2 rather than simple
L1 transfer.
● Fossilization: Certain errors persist due to insufficient exposure, feedback, or
instruction.

C: Identify differences
Fill out this table
F: Reflect and recommend
Based on the differences between learning as a child and as an adult, come up with strategies
for Dr. Saranko to learn Spanish easier.