Engineering Surveying-I Chapter-1

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

Surveying is the science and art of determining the positions of various points above, on or
below the surface of the earth. The relative positions are determined by measuring horizontal
distance, vertical distance (elevations), horizontal angle, and vertical angle accurately using
various surveying instruments.
To many, the traditional role of a surveyor has been to determine the position of features in both
the natural and built environment on or below the surface of the Earth and to represent these on a
map. Even though this view of surveying is still true in some respects, in an age when the
acquisition, processing and presentation of data are paramount, surveyors today will be familiar
with many different methods for collecting spatial data about the Earth and its environment, they
will be able to process this data in various formats and they will be able to present this in an
assortment of media. Although this gives an idea of what contemporary surveying is, to the
majority of engineers working on construction sites surveying is the process of measuring angles,
distances and heights to help in the design and construction of civil engineering projects.

This gives rise to the term engineering surveying, which is defined as any survey work carried
out in connection with construction and building. This also involves all of the different methods
of data acquisition, processing and presentation now available in surveying. Many on site think
that engineering surveying is a labour intensive method that uses old-fashioned instruments for
taking measurements and requires never-ending calculations to be done. Although theodolites,
levels and tapes are still used Engineering surveying will always require some calculations to be
done on site, the way in which surveys are carried out for civil engineering and construction
projects has been transformed in recent years. For example, most measurements of distance,
angle and height are now recorded and processed electronically using total stations and digital
levels. Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) are in everyday use, and airborne
technologies such as LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) are used by engineers for mapping.
The large amounts of data that can be collected by these measuring systems are easily processed
by computers that are capable of handling data and performing calculations in a fraction of the
time taken to do this a few years ago. Another benefit of the digital age in data recording and
processing is that data can be transmitted between instrument and office using a mobile phone or
WiFi to connect to the Internet. Not surprisingly, all of these new technologies have resulted in
some changes to the way in which engineering surveying is carried out. Up till now, the main
purposes of engineering surveying have been to supply the survey data required for preparing
maps and plans for site surveys, together with all aspects of dimensional control and setting out
on site. However, even though these are still relevant, there is now much more emphasis on
providing survey data and managing this for both engineering and built environments.

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Engineering surveying

The term engineering surveying is a general expression for any survey work carried out in
connection with the construction of particular engineering features, for example, roads, railways,
pipe lines, dams, power stations, airports and so on.

The main purposes of engineering surveying are listed below.

(1) To produce up-to-date plans of the areas in which engineering projects are to be built. The
scales of the plans are usually considerably larger than those produced in the other forms of land
surveying; 1:500 is a commonly used engineering survey scale although larger scales such as
1:200, 1:100 and 1:50 are also used .These plans form the basis for the design of the
construction, and hence the reliability of the design depends to a great extent on the precision
and thoroughness with which the original survey is carried out.

(2) To determine the necessary areas and volumes of land and materials that may be required
during the construction.

(3) To ensure that the construction is built in its correct relative and absolute position on the
ground.

(4) To record the final as-built position of the construction including any amendments.

(5) To provide permanent control points from which particularly important projects can be
surveyed, for example, monitoring the faces of dams to check for any movement.

1.2 Principles of Engineering Surveying

The principles of engineering surveying are straightforward and follow a logical step-by-step
sequence as follows.

(1) Carry out a reconnaissance, that is, look round the area and choose suitable positions for the
location of control points.

(2) Construct the points. This can range from establishing concrete pillars to simply driving
wooden pegs into the ground.

(3) Take field measurements of all the necessary angles, heights and distances. Take extra
measurements for checking purposes, these are known as redundant observations. All the
information should be recorded carefully in field books or on booking forms.

(4) Calculate the positions of the control points; checking the calculations wherever possible.
Usually, both the elevation and the plan position (coordinates) of each point are calculated.

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(5) If a plan is to be produced, additional field measurements are taken to locate the existing
features in the area. This is known as detail surveying. The drawing is produced and passed on to
the designer who uses it as a basis for the design of the particular engineering project.

(6) If the control points are to be used for setting out work, calculations are undertaken to obtain
the relative angles and distances required to establish the exact position of the engineering
feature from the control points and the setting out is then undertaken.

(7) Additional drawings may be produced from the field measurements if cross sections,
longitudinal sections or other plan information is required. Further calculations may be carried
out to obtain area, volume or other information.

1.3. Types and principles of surveying

1.3.1. Primary division of surveying

Primary division of surveying is made on the basis of whether the curvature of the earth is
considered or assumed to be flat. The shape of the earth is an oblate spheroid. It is an ellipsoid
revolution, flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator. The length of the polar axis is about
12713.168km and that of equatorial axis is about 12756.602km.Thus the polar axis shorter than
the equatorial axis by about 43.43km. Because of the curvature of the earth's surface the
measured distances on the earth are actually curved. However, when the distances are small,
compared with the radius of the earth, there is no significant difference between the curved
distance and the corresponding straight line distance and the curvature of the earth can be
neglected. Surveying is thus divided into two types.

1. Plane surveying

2. Geodetic surveying

1. Plane surveying

It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is neglected and it is assumed to be
flat surface. All distance and horizontal angles are assumed to be projected on to a horizontal
plane. Plane surveying can safely be used when one is concerned with small portion of the earth's
surface and areas involved are less than 250sq.km or so. It is worth noting that the difference
between an arc distance of 18.5km on the earth's surface and the corresponding chord distance is
less than 10mm. Further the difference between the sum of the angles of a spherical triangle
having an area of 200sq.km on the earth's surface and that of the corresponding angles of a plane
triangle is only1second. In plane surveying the angled of polygons are considered as plane
angles.

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2. Geodetic surveying

It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken into consideration, and a
very standard of accuracy is maintained. The main objective of geodetic surveying is to
determine the precise location of a system of widely spaced points on the surface of the earth.

NO. Plane surveying Geodetic surveying

1. The earth surface is considered as a plane The earth surface is considered as a curved surface
surface.

2. The curvature of earth surface is ignored. The curvature of earth surface is taken in account.

3. Line joining any two points is considered to Line joining any two points is considered to be
be straight. curve.

4. The triangle formed by any three points is The triangle formed by any three points is
considered as a plane triangle. considered as a spherical triangle.

5. The angle of triangle is considered as plane The angle of triangle is considered as spherical
angle. angle.

6. Carried out for a small area <250km2 Carried out for a large area >250km2

1.3.2. Classification of surveying based on purpose

1. Control survey: - is a survey made to establish the horizontal or vertical positions of an

arbitrary point.

2. Topographic Survey is a survey conducted to determine the configuration of the ground and
all the features on it (man-made or natural)

3. Construction Survey: - Surveys performed to locate or layout engineering works.

4. Cadastral Survey: - us a survey made to determine the lengths and directions of boundary lines
and the area of the tract bounded by these lines. Or it is simply a survey made to establish the
positions of boundary lines on the ground.

5. Hydrographic Survey: - is a survey conducted to determine the configuration of the bottom of

the body of water.

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6. Route Survey: - involves the determination of the relief and the location of natural and
artificial objects along a proposed route for high– way, railroad, canal, pipeline, power line or
other utilities. The may also involve the calculation of earthwork quantities.

1.3.3 Classification of survey based on instruments used

Based On the instruments used surveying can be classified as under:

1. Chain surveying: This is the simplest type of surveying in which only linear measurements are
taken with a chain or tape.

2. Compass surveying: In compass surveying, the horizontal angles are measured with the help
of a magnetic compass, in addition to the linear measurements with a chain or a tape.

3. Level1ing: this is a type of surveying in which a leveling instrument is used for determinations
of vertical elevations (levels) of various points in the vertical plane.

4. Plane table surveying: In plane table surveying, a map is prepared in the field while viewing
the terrain after determining the directions of various lines and taking the linear measurements
with telescopic alidade.

5. Theodolite surveying: theodolite is a very precise instrument for measuring horizontal and
vertical angles.

6. Tacheometric surveying: a tacheometric is a special type of theodolite that is fitted with Stadia
diaphragm having two horizontal cross hairs in addition to the central horizontal hair In
tacheometric surveying horizontal angles, horizontal distances and elevations are measured with
a tacheometer.

7. Photogrammetric surveying: Photogrammetry is a science of taking measurements with the

help of photographs. Photogrammetric surveying are generally used for topographic mapping of
vast areas.

8. EDM(Electromagnetic distance measurement ) Surveying: Trilateration is a type of

triangulation in which all the three sides of a triangle are measured accurately with EDM
instruments. The angles are computed indirectly from the known sides of the triangles. Thus all
the sides and angles are determined.

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1.4 Principles of surveying

Two basic Principles of surveying are:

1. Working from the whole to part:-this is the ruling principle in surveying. The surveyor
should first establish a sufficient number of points with high degree of precision in and
around the area to be surveyed. In any surveying work we need a minimum of two control
points (Bench marks). If the area to be surveyed is to large it is necessary to establish other
minor control points in between primary control points by adopting in any of surveying
methods. The principles of surveying starts by location of any points on the earth surface
from the control points.

Figure working from whole to part

2. Fixing a point in relation the point already fixed:-it describes the position of two points A
and B are already fixed. The third point C can be located in relation to A and B by direct
approaches.

Example: In figure below, A and B be control points and their original positions are known
precisely. The third point C is a point to be located in relation to A and B, by taking two other
measurements which can of course be similarly drawn to scale on the paper. The two
measurements can consist of two distances, one distance and an angle, or two angles as shown
below.

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Following are the methods of locating point C from such reference points A & B.

 The distance AB can be measured accurately and the relative positions of the point can
be then plotted on the sheet to some scale.

(a) Taking linear measurement from A and B for C.

(b) Taking linear measurement of perpendicular from D to C.

(c) Taking one linear measurement from B and one angular measurement as / ABC

 Taking two angular measurement at A & B as angles / CAB and / ABC.

 Taking one angle at B as / ABC and one linear measurement from A as AC.

1.5 Stage of surveying work

A survey work has the following phases:
1. Planning, analysis and decision making: it involves the following:
 Selection of an appropriate method of surveying
 Selection of instruments and other equipment
 Selection and fixing of survey stations

2. Care and adjustment of instrument: the surveyor must check before use that the permanent
adjustments are not disturbed.
3. Field works: it is the process of collecting field data by making linear and angular
measurements and recording them in systematic manner.
4. Office work: the office work involves:
 Computation of coordinates
 Data processing
 Preparing plan or maps to suitable scales
 Computation of areas and volumes
5. Setting out works: it involves pegging out the structure on the ground before construction
starts.

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1.6 TYPE OF INSTRUMENT

Instruments are the tools or devices which are used to carry out various jobs in a field. In every
field, you need some tools (some devices) to perform different operations. Without proper
instruments one cannot perform his job accurately and efficiently.

1. Metric chain (Tape) Chain is an instrument used to measure linear distance in surveying.

2. Staff rod/ Levelling rods

Used with auto level in measuring the levels of different points or objects.

3. Ranging Rods

These rods are used in surveying for stationing and ranging of lines. For Ranging at least 3 rods

4. Reflector/Prism: Used in total station Surveying as shown in figure

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5. Tripod

Used for setting out of Instruments like Auto level, theodolite, total stations etc.

Pegs : Used for station point or used in setting of curves.

6. Plumb bob: Used for verticality and point centering.

7. EDM stands for Electronic Distance Measurement

EDM is a surveying instrument used for measuring distance electronically between two points
through electromagnetic waves. The distance measured by EDM is more precise than measured
with chain or tape. The wave emitted from the EDM reaches the reflector and return back to the
EDM. Then the distance is measured with the help of time taken for the above process – time
taken by the wave for the emission and return. The following equation is used to measure the
distance.

Distance = Velocity X time

8. Level Machine

A dumpy level/ automatic level is an optical instrument used to establish or verify points in the
same horizontal plane. It is used in surveying and building with a vertical staff to measure height
differences and to transfer, measure and set heights.

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Applications of Auto level: To measure height differences, Used in a Road Profile. For
excavation of canals, roads, pipelines, railroads etc. Setting height of known objects, Finding
height and horizontal angle between different objects, Helps in making contour maps, contour
lines etc.

9. Theodolite

Theodolite is an instrument used in surveying to measure horizontal and vertical angles. The line
of sight of Theodolite can be rotated through 180o in vertical plane about its horizontal axis.
Theodolite which can be rotated through 180o in vertical plane about its horizontal axis is called
Transit Theodolite and Non-Transit if rotation is not possible

Application of Theodolite: Measuring horizontal and Vertical angles,Locating points on a line,

Difference of level, Setting out of Curves, Measurement of Bearings and Setting out of Grades
(Slopes).

10. Total Station

A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern surveying. Total station is an

equipment combination of Electromagnetic Distance Measuring Instrument and electronic
Theodolite.

It is also integrated with microprocessor, electronic data collector and storage system. The
instrument can be used to measure horizontal and vertical angles as well as horizontal, vertical
and sloping distance of object to the instrument. Initially theodolites were used to measure
angles.

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Distances were measured either with the tapes or chains. With the advancement in technology,
EDM (Electron Distance Measurement) was mounted on theodolites. Total stations became
combination of theodolite, level and measuring tape.

Data collected from total station can be downloaded into computer/laptops for further processing
of information.

Application of Total station

Used for topographic, Hydrographic, cadastral, project and construction surveys. Computing
coordinates of survey points from horizontal angle and horizontal distance, Area calculations,
Volume Calculations, Stake out Coordinates, Setting out Curves. Remote distance measurement
(RDM) or Missing line measurement (MLM)

1.11 GPS (Global Positioning System)

As the technology is advancing day by day, several new methods are introduced by developers to
help the surveyors in performing different operations in field more accurately and precisely.

Initially GPS was developed for military use but there is a wide variety of equipment and
techniques that can be used for surveying. GPS was rapidly adapted for surveying, as it can give
a position (Latitude, Longitude and Height) directly, without the need to measure angles and
distances between intermediate points.

Survey control points could now be established almost anywhere and it is only necessary to have
a clear view of the sky so the signal from the GPS satellites could be received clearly.

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Application of GPS

 GPS provides surveying and mapping data of the highest accuracy.

 GPS is especially useful in surveying coasts and waterways, where there are few land-
based reference points.
 Bridge builders and offshore oil rigs also depend on GPS for accurate hydrographic
surveys.
 Significant productivity gains in terms of time, equipment, and labor required.
 Fewer operational limitations compared to conventional techniques.
 Accurate positioning of physical features that can be used in maps and models.
 Faster delivery of geographic information needed by decision makers.

Figure: Differential Gps

1.7 SCALE AND UNIT OF MEASUREMENTS

1.7.1 Scale

Scale is the ratio of the distance between two points on a map to the corresponding distance on
the ground. Scale = Map distance /Ground distance

All engineering plans and drawings are produced at particular scales, for example, 1: 500, 1: 100
and so on. The scale value indicates the ratio of horizontal and/or vertical plan distances to
horizontal and/or vertical ground distances that was used when the drawing was produced,

for example , a horizontal plan having a scale of 1: 50 indicates that for a line AB

and, if line AB as measured on the plan = 18.2 mm, then horizontal ground length AB=18.2 x 50
=910mm

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The term 'large-scale' indicates a small ratio, for example, 1: 10, 1:20 , whereas the term ' small-
scale' indicates a large ratio, for example, 1: 50 000.

Small-scale surveys cover large areas such as an entire continent, country or county, and may
range in scale from 1: 1000 to 1:50 000.

Medium-scale maps range in scale from about1: 10000 to 1: 1000 and may cover the area of a
small town.

Large-scale maps show details and present information which cannot be obtained from a map
purchased in a shop and are therefore usually commissioned for a specific purpose. These maps
range in scale from I:500 up to I : 50 or larger and are often provided to meet the needs of
architects, civil engineers, or government departments.

On engineering drawings, scales are usually chosen to be as large as possible to enable features
to be drawn as they actually appear on the ground. If too small a scale is chosen then it may not
be physically possible to draw true representations of features and in such cases conventional
symbols are used; this is a technique commonly adopted by the Ordnance Survey. It must be
stressed that the scale value of any engineering drawing or plan must always be indicated on the
drawing itself. Without this it is incomplete and it is impossible to scale dimensions from the
plan with complete confidence.

1.7.2 Units

Those units which are most commonly used in engineering surveying are as follows .

There are two main systems of measurements:

1) Metric system (SI Système International)

2) British system

Most countries of the world use SI metric units of measurement; SI stands for “Système
International.”

Most measurements and computations in surveying are related to the determination of angles (or
directions), distance, area, and volume.

1. Distance (Length), Area, Volume

A. Distance (Length)
In the SI system of units, length or distance is measured primarily in terms of meters (m) and its
fractions where as in the brutish system; the basic unit for distance or length is the foot (ft) and
itsfractions.

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SI Metric System British System

1 meter (m) =1000 millimeters (mm) 1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in)
1 meter (m) =100 centimeters (cm) 1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft)
1 meter =10 decimeters (dm) 1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet
1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters 1 chain (ch) = 66 feet
1 millimeter= 0.001 meter 1 chain =100 links (lk) = 4 rods (rd)
1 centimeter =0.010 meter 1 mile =80 chains
1 decimeter = 0.100 meter 1 fathom (fm) = 6 feet
British and SI Metric Equivalences
1 inch =25.4 millimeters* 1 meter= 39.37009 inches
1 foot=0.3048 meter 1 meter =3.2808399 feet
1 mile=1.609344 Kilometers 1 kilometer =0.62137119 mile
Example Conversions:
1. Convert a distance of 567.89 ft to its equivalent in meters.
567.89 ft x 0.3048 m =173.09 m
1 ft
2. Convert a distance 2.34 km to its equivalent in miles.
2.34 km x0.62 137 119 mi =1.45 mi
1 km
B. Area
The unit for measuring area, which expresses the amount of two-dimensional Space
encompassed within the boundary of a closed figure or shape, is derived from the basic unit of
length. In SI metric units, the basic unit for area is the square meter (m 2 ). Large land areas may
be expressed interms of square kilometers (sq km or km2) or hectares (ha), where 1 ha is
equivalent to 1 0 000 m. Another metric unit for area is the are, where 1 are = 100 m.

British System C. Volume

1 square yard (yd2) = 9 square feet (ft) The SI Unit for volume is the derived unit
1 cubic yard (yd3) = 27 cubic feet (ft) cubic meter (m3)
1 acre (ac) =10 square chains 1000 cu millimeters =1 cubic centimeter
1 acre = 43560 square feet 1000 cu centimeters = 1 cubic decimeter
I square mile (mi2) = 640 acres 1000 Cu decimeters =1 cubic meter
SI Metric System
British and SI Metric Equivalences 1 square kilometer
2 6 2
1 square yard =0.8361274 square meter (km )=10 squaremeters(m )
1 cubic yard =0.764555 cubic meter 1 square kilometer =100 hectares (ha)
1 square foot =0.0929368 square meter 1 hectare= 10000 square meters
1 acre = 0.40468564 hectare 1 hectare =100 ares
1 hectare= 2.47 10538 acres 1 are =100 square meters
1 m2 = 106 mm2

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104 m2= 1 hectare (ha) 1 square mile= 2.59 square kilometers

106 m2 = 1 square kilometer (km2) 1 square meter =10.76 square feet

1 square kilometer=0.3861 Square mile

1 square meter =1.19599 square yards
1 cubic meter =1.30795 cubic yards
2. Describing the units for Plane angle
An angle is simply a figure formed by the intersection of two lines. It may also be viewed as
being generated by the rotation of a line about a point, from an initial position to a terminal
position. The point of rotation is called the vertex of the angle. Angular measurement is
concerned with the amount of rotation, or the space between the initial and terminal positions of
the line.
There are three systems in use for angular unit, namely
(DEGREES, MINUTES AND SECONDS)
The units, in which a complete rotation of a line (or a circle) is divided into 360 parts called
degrees of arc, this is used in many parts of the world, including the UK, and measure angles in
degrees (º), minutes (') and seconds ('') of arc, i.e.1 degree is divided into 60 minutes, and 1
minute is further divided into 60 seconds of arc. The symbols for degrees, minutes, and seconds
are °, ', and '', respectively
 1circle=360º
 1º = 60'
 1' = 60''

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