Casting Applications

Castings can range in size: from a few grams (for example, watch case) to several tones (marine diesel engines), shape complexity: from simple (manhole cover) to intricate (6-cylinder engine block) and order size: one-off (paper mill crusher) to mass production (automobile pistons). The desired dimensional accuracy and surface finish can be achieved by the choice of process and its control. Castings enable many pieces to be combined into a single part, eliminating assembly and inventory and reducing costs by50% or more compared to machined parts. Unlike plastics, castings can be completely recycled. Today, castings are used in virtually all walks of life. Transport: automobile, aerospace, railways and shipping Heavy equipment: construction, farming and mining Machine tools: machining, casting, plastics moulding, forging, extrusion and forming Plant machinery: chemical, petroleum, paper, sugar, textile, steel and thermal plants Defense: vehicles, artillery, munitions, storage and supporting equipment Electrical machines: motors, generators, pumps and compressors Municipal castings: pipes, joints, valves and fittings Household: appliances, kitchen and gardening equipment, furniture and fittings Art objects: sculptures, idols, furniture, lamp stands and decorative items Virtually any metal or alloy that can be melted can be cast. The most common ferrous metals include grey iron, ductile iron, malleable iron and steel. Alloys of iron and steel are used for high performance applications, such as temperature, wear and corrosion resistance. The most common non-ferrous metals include aluminum, copper, zinc and magnesium based alloys. The production and application of ductile iron and aluminum castings are steadily increasing. Aluminum has overtaken steel in terms of production by weight. The consumption of magnesium alloys is rapidly increasing in automobile and other sectors, owing its high strength to weight ratio Process Sand Shell mold Expendable pattern Plaster mold Advantages Wide range of shapes, low cost better accuracy, production rate metals, finish, Disadvantages sizes, poor finish, tolerance higher limited part size patterns strength have Examples wide engine blocks, cylinder heads connecting rods, gear housings low cylinder heads, brake components of

Wide range of metals, sizes, shapes

complex finish

shapes,

good

surface non-ferrous metals, prototypes low production rate mechanical parts

Ceramic mold Investment Permanent mold Die Centrifugal

complex shapes, high accuracy, small sizes good finish complex shapes, excellent finish small parts, expensive

impellers, injection mold tooling jewellery

good finish, low porosity, high Costly mold, simpler gears, gear housings production rate shapes only Excellent dimensional high production rate accuracy, costly dies, small parts, Large cylindrical parts, good quality non-ferrous metals Expensive, limited shapes precision gears, camera bodies, car wheels pipes, boilers, flywheels

1St questions answer (Ref) Metal Grey Iron Use 54% Characteristics Applications

Heat resistance, damping, low cost, Automobile cylinder block, clutch plate, brake drum, machine tool high fluidity, low shrinkage. beds, housings Strength, wear and shock resistance, Crank shafts, cam dimensional stability, machinability. differential valves, brackets, rollers. Strength to weight ratio, resistance. shafts, housing,

Ductile Iron

20%

Aluminum

12%

corrosion Automobile pistons, oil and fuel pumps, connecting rod, clutch housings. Machine parts, gears, valves Marine impellers, valves, hydraulic pump parts

Steel Copper base

9% 2%

Strength, machinability, weldability High ductility, corrosion resistance.

Zinc base

1%

2nd , 3rd , 5th (ref)

Metallurgical Characteristics

Fluid Life Solidification Shrinkage Slag and/or Dross Formation Tendency Pouring Temperature

Mechanical Characteristics

Modulus of Elasticity Section Modulus

Fluid Life A molten metal's fluid life is more than its ability to fill the mold cavity. The fluid life also determines how easily and how long the metal flows through narrow channels to form thin sections, and how readily it conforms to fine surface detail. The temperature of the molten metal is not the only factor that affects the alloy's fluid life. For a give alloy, fluid life does not increase with superheat (excess temperature above the alloy's liquidus temperature). However, fluid life of every alloy does not necessarily increase equally with temperature. In other words, fluid life of a molten metal alloy is also dependent on chemical, metallurgical and surface tension factors. Fluid life will affect the design characteristics of a casting. By understanding the nature of an alloy's fluid life, the designer will recognize several important design criteria. Some of these are:

minimum section thickness that can be attained the maximum length of a thin section the fineness of cosmetic detail that is possible

It is also essential to understand that moderate or even poor fluid life does not limit the cost-effectiveness of design. Knowing that an alloy has limited fluid life tells the designer that the casting should feature:

softer shapes finer detail in the bottom portion of the mold more taper leading to thin sections larger letteringetc.

Some casting processes feature molds that are very dry or hot. These molding process minimize the effects of convection, a mode of heat of heat transfer which reduces fluid life. Solidification Shrinkage There are three distinct stages of shrinkage as molten metal alloys solidify:

liquid shrinkage liquid-to-solid shrinkage solid shrinkage

Liquid Shrinkage is the contraction of the liquid before solidification begins. While important to metal casters, it is not an important design consideration. Liquid-to-Solid Shrinkage is the shrinkage of the metal as it goes from the liquid's disconnected atoms and molecules to the formation of crystals of atoms and chemical compounds, the building blocks of solid metal. The amount of solidification shrinkage varies a great deal from alloy to alloy. Figure 1 provides a guide to the liquid-tosolid shrinkage of the most common ferrous and nonferrous alloys. As shown, shrinkage can vary from very little to high shrinkage volumes. Alloys can be further classified into three groups based on their solidification range:

directional eutectic equiaxed

Failure to recognize the impact of liquid-to-solid (solidification) shrinkage is one of the worst errors that "rule of thumb" design handbooks make. Liquid-to-Solid shrinkage is an extremely important consideration for the design engineer. In some alloys, disregard for this type of shrinkage results in voids in the casting. Both the design and foundry engineer have the tools to combat this problem, but the designer has the most cost-effective tool, that is geometry.

Figure. Volume changes in iron-carbon alloys. Geometry can be found that meets structural needs and solidification shrinkage needs. For some alloys, finding that geometry can be very simple. For other alloys, finding that geometry is the real essence of good casting design. Should that geometry not be found for difficult alloys, the foundry engineer must resort to "thermal trickery" to create fluid flow and heat transfer patterns that the geometry fails to provide. "Thermal trickery" is creative stuff, a major weapon in the expert foundry engineer's arsenal, but it is expensive. Eliminating thermal trickery with good design makes castings that cost less to produce and cost less to process and assemble. Solid Shrinkage (often called patternmaker's shrink) occurs after the metal has completely solidified and is cooling to ambient temperature. Solid shrinkage changes the dimension of the casting from those in the mold to those dictated by the rate of solid shrinkage for the alloy. In other words, as the solid casting shrinks away from the mold walls, it assumes final dimensions that must be predicted by the patternmaker. This variability of patternmaker's shrink is a very important design consideration. This uncertainty about patternmaker's shrink is why foundry men normally recommend producing a first article (sometimes called a sample casting) to establish what dimensions really are before going into production.

There is high risk in assuming that the solid shrinkage predictions built into patterns/dies and core boxes will result in final dimensions that are "close enough" to prediction to fit within allowable tolerance. Despite all the good planning, the nature of patternmaker's shrink is unpredictable enough and important enough that adjustments will probably be necessary on the pattern to achieve the final production dimensions and tolerances. Slag / Dross Formation According to the dictionary, slag and dross are synonyms meaning: "refuse from melting of metals ". Obviously, no one wants "refuse" in castings. Among foundrymen, slag and dross have slightly different meanings. Slag is usually is associated with the higher melting point metals (ferrous metals) and is composed of liquid nonmetallic compounds (usually fluxed refractories), products of alloying and products of oxidation in air. Dross, on the other hand, usually is associated with lower melting point metals (non-ferrous alloys) and often means the nonmetallic compounds produced primarily by the molten metal reacting with air. Some molten metal alloys are much more sensitive to slag/dross formation than others. Castings made from these alloys are much more prone to contain nonmetallic inclusions. There are casting processes, quality control techniques and design considerations that can dramatically reduce the likelihood of nonmetallic inclusions in casting. Design geometry guidelines to minimize the possibility of nonmetallic inclusions affecting the surface quality of castings ... Pouring Temperature Metal castings are produced in molds that must withstand the extremely high temperature of liquid metals. Interestingly, there really are not many choices of refractors to do the job. As a result, high molten metal temperatures are very important to casting geometry as well as what casting process should be used.

Modulus of Elasticity The measure of stiffness of a metal itself (without regard to material shape) is known as the modulus of elasticity or Young's Modulus. In the case of metals, it is a function of metallurgy, and it is a mechanical property of the metal alloy. Although this is a parameter discussed at length in engineering books on material science, it is a common measurement in foundries; in most foundries, the modulus of elasticity is a parameter measured virtually every day. The modulus of elasticity is similar to the elastic (straight-line) portion of the stress/strain diagram created whenever a test bar is pulled on a tensile test machine. Another important design engineering fact about modulus of elasticity is that it is independent of metal shape, that is, casting geometry.

Section Modulus Another measure of stiffness is section modulus, which is stiffness from shape or geometry; unlike modulus of elasticity, it has nothing to do with the material. Actually section modulus is an aspect of moment of inertia which is a function of a shape's cross-sectional area in combination with its height. Two important conclusions can be drawn from the mathematics:

The only factors in the equations are shape! The final equation gives the engineer clues about how the shape of the I-beam could be varied to maximize moment of inertia and therefore the section modulus while minimizing the amount of material in the beam.

Stiffness from geometry of section modulus is a very powerful engineering tool. The knowledge of section modulus enables the engineer to create metal shapes that are much stiffer than the material itself could ever be. The most significant observation that can be made about stiffness from geometry is that there is no other method besides metal casting that can offer so much geometry in the design and manufacture of component shapes. Another significant observation is that design stress in a structural part is directly related to section modulus. In fact, it is a direct, inverse relationship in which increasing section modulus decreases stress. We now see an important synergism between modulus of elasticity and section modulus. Modulus of elasticity determines how much stress a metal can safety carry before it begins to deform permanently and section modulus enables the engineer to use geometry to keep the stress within safe bounds. As we have learned, creative use of section modulus enables relatively weaker metals to do the work of stronger ones. The development of engineering computer hardware and software for making and analyzing solid models has enabled a quantum leap in the use of section modulus to increase the stiffness of structural components and reduce the stress within them. In fact, these tools are making the power of metal casting geometry much more accessible to design engineers because they enhance so significantly the ability to visualize in three dimensions.

4th Gas Defects A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the molten metal or by mold gases evolved during the pouring of the casting. The defects in this category can be classified into blowholes and pinhole porosity. Blowholes are spherical or elongated cavities present in the casting on the surface or inside the casting. Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during heating of molten metal. Causes

The lower gas-passing tendency of the mold, which may be due to lower venting, lower permeability of the mold or improper design of the casting. The lower permeability is caused by finer grain size of the sand, high percentage of clay in mold mixture, and excessive moisture present in the mold.

Metal contains gas Mold is too hot Poor mold burnout Pin holes

Subsurface porosity

A widely accepted theory of the origin of subsurface porosity has been summarized by Turkdogan (1986). He describes how subsurface porosity occurring in cast irons and steels poured into greensand moulds is a consequence of metal/mould interaction. Gas bubbles form in crevices of the mould in contact with the metal and bubble into the metal, where they become trapped during the early stages of solidification. The action of alloying elements on the process is discussed in terms of their effect on the surface tension of the liquid metal; a lower surface tension allows bubbles to enter the metal more easily, thereby increasing the subsurface porosity. The theory is similar to the micro blow. Hydrogen porosity It is also important to remember that both water and hydrocarbons (that are available in abundance in most sand castings) can decompose at the metal surface, both releasing hydrogen. The surface will therefore have no shortage of hydrogen; in fact, it is seen that in general the mould atmosphere often contains up to 50 per cent hydrogen, and may be practically 100 per cent hydrogen in many cases. What happens to this hydrogen? Although much is clearly lost by convection to the general atmosphere in the mould, some will diffuse into the metal if not prevented by some kind of barrier.

Blow holes: The name blow-hole, blowhole, or simply blow, is strictly reserved solely for those defects which are forced (actually blown) into the liquid metal via the mechanical penetration of the liquid surface. The term is therefore quite specific and accurately descriptive. (The term excludes pores nucleated internally by the precipitation of gas dissolved in the liquid, or diffusing in from the surface, and also excludes bubbles entrained by surface turbulence.) The reader is encouraged to use the name blowhole with accuracy. If the gas pressure in a core increases to the point at which it exceeds the pressure in the surrounding liquid, gas will force its way out of the core and into the liquid. (The contribution of surface tension to increasing the pressure required is practically negligible in the case of core blows because of the large size of the bubbles that are formed in this process).

POROSITY, BLOW HOLES & PIN HOLES

Porosity presents as series of small holes in the cast, these often impart coarse sand like quality to the affected metal surface. In more serious examples, the holes are pronounced and deep, creating rough irregular intrusions into the cast. There are a number of potential causes for this type of fault; the most usual being too heavy or too uneven a wall thickness (often this is also accompanied by localized shrinkage). Likewise, trapped gases in solidifying metal, a poorly vented mould or core mass and excessive turbulence set up in the metal charge during casting may also contribute to a high incidence of porosity faults. Small pin holes and areas of minimal porosity are easily MATTED over using hand tools, though larger repairs may require patching, or at least filling with weld and re-working. Pinholes: A defect similar to a sand blow involves the formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly below the surface of the casting

ENTRAINED AIR: Usually large, smooth cavities, can be flat or elongated hollow regions just under cope surface, often in protruding features such as bosses Usually consistent in location

GAS BLOW:

Small to medium size, often clustered, smooth and round, silver interior walls Often located in proximity to or above a cored surface Location usually consistent casting to casting

REACTION GAS: Very small, round, scattered or clustered, often has a tail elongated perpendicular to surface Always found just under cored surface, or just under the cope surface. Often has white powder in interior

METAL GAS 7th Key Metals in the Foundry or Metal Casting Aluminum (Al), Copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr) Iron (Fe), Magnesium (Mg), Manganese (Mn) Nickel (Ni), Silicon (Si), Tin (Sn), Zinc (Zn)The above are identified with their Elemental names as found in the periodic table, the only thing to note at this time is that Silicon (Si) is grouped as a semi-metal in the periodic table and not as a pure metal. Key Nonmetals in Metal Casting Carbon (C), Sulphur (S), Phosphorus (P) Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O) Very small, elongated, often on or just under surface . Many small holes in cluster of large area Can make shrinkage more pronounced and vein-like

Take note, the last three elements listed (Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O)) are typically encountered in a gaseous state and will reflect a different elemental symbology as shown below Hydrogen (H2), Nitrogen (N2) ,Oxygen (O2) Key oxides (in the form of ceramics) Alumina (Al2O3), Silica (SiO2), Magnesia (MgO)and Calcium Oxide (CaO)The compounds listed in this section are the primary constituents of Slag or Dross encountered in the process of melting metals and their reaction to Oxygen (O) found in the atmosphere An effort has been made to list the Elemental symbol alongside of the name or compound, this is a practice that should continue... Even if the word Iron (Fe) is used 5 (Five) times within a single sentence...

Provided the symbols are accurate to the names, it should aid in the process of internalizing their symbol... I'm not saying that this will be on the final Exam, but I'd be quitesurprised if it wasn't there just as a "Gimme" mark... and if you don't know these cold, you have no business passing the exam... Classification of Foundries In general terms Foundries can be grouped by the type of metals that they cast, the primary groupings are "Ferrous" and "Non-Ferrous". The term Ferrous relates to the presence of Iron (Fe) in the metal being poured. A ferrous foundry would typically pour cast iron in its various forms including but not limited to the various grades of steel. A Non-Ferrous foundry would typically pour alloys of metal that are NOT Iron (Fe) based, these would include, but are not limited to Aluminum (Al) and all it various alloys, Copper (Cu) and it's alloys of brass and bronze, as well as the Magnesium (Mg) based alloys. If pressed further I would divide the above categories into 2 (two) other subgroupings called Jobbing and Captive foundries. Captive foundries are typically a division of a larger corporation or business, they are considered Captive" in that they only make castings for the parent company. A good example of a captive foundry would be the engine block division of an automotive manufacturing facility. One of the advantages of creating a captive foundry would be consistency of production and greater control of product development and retention of intellectual property relating to the castings, and proprietary techniques developed for their production. The Jobbing Foundry is one that is an open shop that produces castings for other companies, personally I would think that Jobbing Foundries would employ a broader skill-set and be more flexible to meet the constant changes that influence the casting market. Similarly Jobbing Foundries would have the potential to be more dynamic due to the ever changing types of work performed, and would be able to offer staff greater challenges. The final sub-section of Module 1 deals with the ideology of casting, it's tremendous potential, and the current trend towards parts integration. The trend specifically in the automotive market is the creation of complex castings that are replacing similarly complex parts that had previously been stamped, machined or fabricated by a combination of both. The very idea of metal casting is such that it evokes the tenets of the Taoist "Un-carved block"... A block of wood, sitting on the bench before the carver. In it's virgin state it holds the myriad of possibilities, it can be anything and everything that is imaginable that would fit within it's volumetric dimensioning. And such is the mound of molders sand before it takes the shape of the casting that is to be. Over the course of the last 8 or 9 months that I've been letting the idea of extending theworkshop.ca into a full-fledged foundry, my many relatives and friends have suggested ideas for object, tools, parts, art pieces etc. that I could cast with the idea that it has business potential...I agree that all of their suggestions hold promise, but the true potential of a foundry operation is that it is not constrained to a particular line or market, as like the un-carved block it holds all possibilities within it's bounds. Different Metal alloys : Zinc, Aluminum, Magnesium, Copper, Cast Irons, High Manganese Steel, Monel , Nickel Based Super Alloys , High Alloy Steels, High Alloy Irons, Carbon & Low Alloy Steel. Metal Quality is effected by oxidization and losses due to vaporization, which can adversely effectthe chemical properties of the alloy being melted. Similarly the types of refractory used are matchedto the basicity or acidity of the metal and/or its resultant (Dross or slag).

Precaution against gas : Degasification is the removal of dissolved gases from liquids, especially water or aqueous solutions, in the fields of science and engineering. There are numerous possible methods for such removal of gases from solids Gases are removed for various reasons. Chemists remove gases from solvents when the compounds they are working on are possibly air- or oxygen-sensitive. The formation of gas bubbles when a liquid is frozeThe solubility of gas obeys Henry's law, that is, the amount of a dissolved gas in a liquid is proportional to its partial pressure. Therefore, placing a solution under reduced pressure makes the dissolved gas less soluble. Sonication and stirring under reduced pressure can usually enhance the efficiency. This technique is often referred to as Vacuum degasification. Specialized vacuum chambers, called vacuum degassers, are used to degas materials through pressure reduction.n can also be undesirable, necessitating degassing. Hydrogen is normally produced by the reaction of the metal with humidity or residual moisture in the mold. Drying the mold can eliminate this source of hydrogen formation.

Pressure reduction To prevent gas porosity the material may be melted in a vacuum, in an environment of low-solubility gases, such as argon or carbon dioxide, or under a flux that prevents contact with the air. To minimize gas solubility the superheat temperatures can be kept low. Turbulence from pouring the liquid metal into the mold can introduce gases, so the molds are often streamlined to minimize such turbulence. Other methods include vacuum degassing, gas flushing, or precipitation. Precipitation involves reacting the gas with another element to form a compound that will form a dross that floats to the top. For instance, oxygen can be removed from copper by adding phosphorus, or aluminum or silicon can be added to steel to remove oxygen. A third source consists of reactions of the molten metal with grease or other residues in the mold.

Heating Generally speaking, the higher the temperature of a solution becomes, the less a gas dissolves provided it doesn't react with the solvent. Consequently, heating a solution can expel the remaining gas. Ultrasonication and stirring at high heat are also effective. This method needs no special apparatus and is easy to conduct. In some cases, however, the solvent and the solute decompose, react with each other, or evaporate at high temperature, and the rate of removal is less reproducible. Membrane degasification Gas-liquid separation membranes allow gas but not liquid to pass through. Flowing a solution inside a gas-liquid separation membrane and vacuating outside makes the dissolved gas go out through the membrane. This method has the advantage of being able to prevent redissolution of the gas, so it is used to produce very pure solvents.

The above three methods are used to remove all dissolved gasses. Below are methods for more selective removal. Substitution by inert gas Bubbling a solution with an inert gas substitutes the dissolved harmful, reactive gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. Nitrogen, argon, helium, and other inert gases are commonly used. To complete thesubstitution, the solution should be stirred vigorously and bubbled for a long time. Because helium is not very soluble in most liquids, this technique is also used to reduce the risk of bubble formation in HPLCsystems. Degassing Wine Yeast uses sugar to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide. In wine making, carbon dioxide is an undesired by-product for most wines. If the wine will be bottled quickly after fermentation, it is important to degas the wine. The most common method used is 'whipping' the wine with some form of whisk or spoon. Just after fermentation is completed and before the 'clearing' stage, the fermented juice is stirred vigorously until the majority of the gases have released from the liquid through agitation. Wineries can often skip this step by aging their wines prior to bottling. Storing the wines in steel and wood barrels for months and sometimes years allows the gases to release from the juice and escape back into the air through airlocks.