Quantitative Techniques and Spatial Analysis 2021 1

Mekedela Amba University

College of Social Science and Humanities
Department of Geography and Environmental studies
Course title: Quantitative technique
Chapter one Introduction to the course
1.1 Key concepts in Statistic
 The science of statistics deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of
data. We see and use data in our everyday lives.
 In statistics, we generally want to study a population.
 a population as a collection of persons, things, or objects under study.
 To study the population, we select a sample. The idea of sampling is to select a portion (or
subset) of the larger population and study that portion (the sample) to gain information about
the population.
 Data are the result of sampling from a population.
 Because it takes a lot of time and money to examine an entire population, sampling is a very
practical technique.
 From the sample data, we can calculate a statistic. A statistic is a number that represents a
property of the sample.
 The statistic is an estimate of a population parameter.
 A parameter is a number that is a property of the population.
 One of the main concerns in the field of statistics is how accurately a statistic estimates a
parameter.
 The accuracy really depends on how well the sample represents the population.
 The sample must contain the characteristics of the population in order to be a representative
sample.
 Variables may be numerical or categorical. Numerical variables take on values with equal units
such as weight in pounds and time in hours.
 Categorical variables place the person or thing into a category.
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 If we let X equal the number of points earned by one math student at the end of a term, then X
is a numerical variable.
 If we let Y be a person's party affiliation, then some examples of Y include Republican,
Democrat, and Independent.
 Y is a categorical variable. We could do some math with values of X (calculate the average
number of points earned, for example), but it makes no sense to do math with values of Y
(calculating an average party affiliation makes no sense). Data are the actual values of the
variable.
 They may be numbers or they may be words.
 Datum is a single value.
 Two words that come up often in statistics are mean and proportion.
1.2 . Measurement Level
The recording of the data involves special problems in geography, one of which is scale and
level of aggregation. There are four 1evels of measurement.
These are
 Nominal,
 Ordinal
 Interval
 Ratio.
A. Nominal Level
 Nominal 1evel is the weakest data measurement. Numbers may be used to represent
an item or characteristic. Examples include: a college may designate majors by
numbers, i.e., BA in Geography =1, BA in History = 2, BA in Mathematics = 3 or gender
may be designated as male =1 and female =2.
 Note that such data should not be treated as numerical, since relative size has no
meaning.
 Thus, you can simply name or designate the gender category as female and male.
 Measurement on nominal scale consists of simply placing each individual into one of a
number of different categories.
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 It doesn't give you any further information other than the designation of the individual
in the category.
 In Nominal level Data that can only be classified into categories and cannot be
arranged in an ordering scheme.
Examples: Eye color, gender, religious affiliation. The categories are mutually exclusive, i.e. an
individual, object, or measurement is included in only one category. The categories are
exhaustive, i.e. an individual, object, or measurement appears in one of the categories.
B. Ordinal Level
 Ordinal level involves data that may be arranged in some order, but differences
between data values cannot be determined or are meaningless. Example: During a taste
test of three soft drinks, Coca Cola was ranked number 1, Sprite was ranked number 2,
and Fanta was ranked number 3.
 Measurement on an ordinal scale involves putting individuals into an order, ranking
them according to some criterion.
 Some data are inherently of an ordinal nature, for example, data on preferences. In
rapidly expanding field of perception studies, geographers are often asking people to
rank towns, parts of the country, or photographs of different types of scenery in order
of preference.
 Ordinal data is one step up from nominal data in the sense that it enables us to say
whether one individual comes before or after another along a scale.
 The main difference between ordinal data and nominal data is that ordinal data contain
both an equality (=) and a greater-than (>) relationship, whereas the nominal data
contain only an equality (=) relationship.
 In Ordinal level Numbers are used to rank. An example is wind forces at sea. Simple
arithmetic operations are not meaningfully applied to ordinal data. Another example is
excellent, good, fair and poor.
In summary, the properties of ordinal level data are:
1. The data categories are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
2. Data categories are ranked or ordered according to the particular trait they possess.
C. Interval Level
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 Measurement on an interval scale consists of allocating a number to an individual to

indicate its precise position along a continuous scale.
 For example, temperature can be measured in degrees centigrade to any desired
number of decimal places, depending only on the precision of the thermometer.
 The rainfall variable tells us by how much one town is wetter than another.
If the rainfall figures were to be ranked, they would merely tell us that one town is wetter than
another, but not by how much.
In interval level
 Interval level is similar to the ordinal level, with the additional property that meaningful
amounts of differences between data values can be determined. There is no natural
zero point.
 Example:
 Temperature on the Fahrenheit scale Interval data are preferred over ordinal data
because, with them, decision makers can precisely determine the difference between
two observations, i.e., distances between numbers can be measured.
The properties of the interval scale are:
1. Data categories are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
2. Data categories are scaled according to the amount of the characteristic they possess.
3. Equal differences in the characteristic are represented by equal differences in the numbers
assigned to the categories.
D. Ratio Data
 This is the highest level of measurement and allows for all basic arithmetic operations,
including division and multiplication.
 Data measured on a ratio scale have a fixed or non-arbitrary zero point.
 Examples include business data, such as cost, revenue and profit. In ratio level.
 The interval levels with an inherent zero starting point.
 Differences and ratios are meaningful for this level of measurement. Examples: Money
and heights of basketball players.
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 Measurements made on a ratio scale have all the characteristics of interval

measurements, with the added feature that the ratio of any two values on a ratio scale
is independent of the Unit of measurement.
For example, if one geography text book weighs 450 grams and another 900 grams, the ratio of
their weights would be 0.5 (450/900). However, on a non-ratio scale, such as temperature, this
is not the case.
A ratio variable is also an interval variable but an interval variable is not necessarily ratio.
The properties of the ratio level are:
1. Data categories are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
2. Data categories are scaled according to the amount of the characteristic they possesses
3. Equal differences in the characteristic are represented by equal differences in the
numbers assigned to the categories.
4. The point 0 reflects the absence of the characteristic
1.3. Geographic Data
 Geographic data link place, time, and attributes. Place, or location, is essential in a
geographic information system.
 Locations are the basis for many of the benefits of geographic information systems: the
ability to map, to link different kinds of information because they refer to the same place,
and to measure distances and areas.
 Without locations, data are said to be "a spatial" and have no value at all within a
geographic information system.
 Time is an optional element. Many aspects of the earth's surface are slow to change and can
be thought of as unchanging.
 Attributes refer to descriptive information.
The range of attributes in geographic information is vast. Some attributes are physical or
environmental in nature (e.g., atmospheric temperature or elevation), while others are social or
economic (e.g., population or income).
1.3.1. What is data?
 Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, words, measurements, observations or
just descriptions of things.
 Field data are data that are collected in an uncontrolled in-situ environment.
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 Experimental data are data that are generated in the course of a controlled scientific
experiment. Data is analyzed using techniques such as calculation, reasoning,
discussion, presentation, visualization, or other forms of post-analysis.
 Data can be qualitative or quantitative.
 Qualitative data is descriptive information (it describes something)
 Quantitative data is numerical information (numbers)
1.3.2. Spatial and Non-Spatial Data
 Spatial data, also known as geospatial data, is a term used to describe any data related
to or containing information about a specific location on the Earth’s surface.
 Non-spatial data, on the other hand, is data that is independent of geographic location.
This blog post will highlights the basics and difference between both spatial and non-
spatial data.
Spatial Data
 It answers where things are.
 It describes the absolute and relative location of geographical objects.
 It is stored in a shape file or geodatabase.
 Generally multi-dimensional and auto-correlated.
 Satellite maps and scanned images help to obtain spatial data.
 Relationships among spatial attributes are implicit. For example, boundaries 1 and 2 could be
neighbors, but cannot be explicitly represented.
 Types of spatial data: Raster Data – Composed of grids or pixels and identified by rows and
columns.
Vector Data – Composed of points, lines, and polygons.
 Examples of spatial data are maps, photographs, satellite images, scanned images, Roads
Rivers, contours, etc.
Non-spatial Data
It answers what and how much things are.
Characteristics of geographical features that are qualitative or quantitative in nature.
It is stored in a database table.
Generally one-dimensional and independent.
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Forest managers, fire departments, environmental groups, and online media helps to obtain
non-spatial data.
Relationships among non-spatial attributes are explicit. For example, two different attributes
may be a part of, a subclass of, a member of, or represented in the form of arithmetic values
or orders.
Types of non-spatial data: Nominal Data, Ordinal Data, Interval Data, Ratio Data
Examples of non-spatial data are names, phone numbers, area, postal code, rainfall,
population, etc.
1.3.3. Sources of data
Sources of Data
The sources of data can be classified into two types: statistical and non-statistical.
? Statistical sources refer to data that is gathered for some official purposes, incorporate
censuses, and officially administered surveys.
? Non-statistical sources refer to the collection of data for other administrative purposes or
for the private sector.
The following are the two sources of data:
1. Internal sources
 When data is collected from reports and records of the organization itself, they are known
as the internal sources.
 For example, a company publishes its annual report’ on profit and loss, total sales, loans,
wages, etc.
2. External sources
 When data is collected from sources outside the organization, they are known as the
external sources.
Types of Data
A) Primary data
 Primary data means first-hand information collected by an investigator.
 It is collected for the first time.
 It is original and more reliable.
 For example, the population census conducted by the government of India after every ten
years is primary data.
Methods of Collecting Primary Data
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1. Direct personal investigation

2. Indirect oral investigation
3. Information through correspondents
4. Telephonic interview
5. Mailed questionnaire
6. The questionnaire filled by enumerators
B) Secondary data
 Secondary data refers to second-hand information.
 It is not originally collected and rather obtained from already published or unpublished
sources.
 For example, the address of a person taken from the telephone directory or the phone
number of a company taken from Just Dial are secondary data.

Unit two
2. Methods of Data Presentation
 Raw statistical data must be presented in a suitable and summarized form without any loss
of relevant information so that it can be efficiently used for decision making.
 Whenever there is a need to present statistical data, graphic aids can help communicate
this information to your audience more quickly.
 The two graphic aids mostly used in research reports are tables and graphs.
 Besides making the report easier to read and understand, graphic aids make attractive the
physical appearance of your research. .
 Several types of statistical/data presentation tools (graphic aids) exist. These include bar
graphs, histograms, scattered diagrams, pie-chart, line graphs and tables.
2.1. Table
 Tabulation is the process of summarizing classified or grouped data in the form of a table
so that it is easily understood and an investigator is quickly able to locate the desired
information.
 A table is systematic arrangement of classified data in columns and rows.
 Thus, a statistical table makes it Possible for the investigator to present a huge mass of
data in a detailed and orderly form.
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 It facilitates comparison and often reveals certain patterns in data which are otherwise not
obvious.
 Classification and Tabulation, as a matter of fact, are not two distinct processes. Actually
they go together.
 Before tabulation data are classified and then displayed under different columns and rows
of a table.
Advantages of Tabulation
Statistical data arranged in a tabular form serve the following objectives:
1. It simplifies complex data and the data presented are easily understood.
2. It facilitates comparison of related facts.
3. It facilitates computation of various statistical measures like measures of central
tendency, Dispersion and correlation.
4. It presents facts in minimum possible space unnecessary repetitions and
explanations are avoided. Moreover, the needed information can be easily located
5. Tabulated data are good for references and they make it easier to present the
information in the Form of graphs and diagrams.
2.2. Histogram
Histogram is simply a bar graph where the bar lengths are determined by the frequencies in
each class of a grouped frequency distribution.
Notice how the bar diagram above is represented by the histogram below having eight
interconnected bars that represent the numbers of farmers in each of the quantities of crop
production distribution.
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2.3. Bar graph

 A bar chart or bar graph is a chart or graph that presents categorical data with rectangular
bars with heights or lengths proportional to the values that they represent.
 The bars can be plotted vertically or horizontally.
 A vertical bar chart is sometimes called a column chart.
 A bar graph shows comparisons among discrete categories.
 One axis of the chart shows the specific categories being compared, and the other axis
represents a measured value. Some bar graphs present bars clustered in groups of more
than one, showing the values of more than one measured variable.

2.4. Line graph

 A line graph also known as a line plot or a line chart is a graph that uses lines to connect
individual data points.
 A line graph displays quantitative values over a specified time interval.
 In finance, line graphs are commonly used to depict the historical price action of an asset
or security.
Types of Line Graphs
There are three main types of line graphs. Although each type is fundamentally rooted in the
same principles, each has its own unique situation where it is best to implement and use.
Simple Line Graph
 A simple line graph is the most basic type of line graph.
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 In this graph, only one dependent variable is tracked, so there is only a single line
connecting all data points on the graph.
 All points on the graph relate to the same item, and the only purpose of the graph is to
track the changes of that variable over time.
 This graph cannot be used to compare the variable to another variable because only
variable is charted.

Multiple Line Graph

 In a multiple line graph, more than one dependent variable is charted on the graph and
compared over a single independent variable (often time).
 Different dependent variables are often given different colored lines to distinguish
between each data set.
 Each line relates to only the points in its given data set; lines do not cross between
dependent variables.
 For example, the line graph below shows the Consumer Price Index again. However, this
graph shows the change in price for three different categories: medical care (red),
commodities (green), and shelter (blue). In this graph, we can see the growth in price
for commodities was higher than the other two categories in July 2022.
 However, shelter or medical expenses were typically the groups that experienced higher
inflation over the past decade.
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Compound Line Graph

 A compound line graph uses multiple variables similar to a multiple line graph.
 However, the variables are often stacked on top of each other to show the total quantity
across all variables.
 This not only informs users of the relationship between each of the variables, but it
informs of how the total changes as well.
 In the example below from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), there are five
dependent variables that range from abnormally dry land areas to exceptional drought
areas.
 The most extreme drought data was graphed first, and any empty space under that line
graph was shaded dark red. Then, subsequent sets of data were plotted after, with the
empty area below each of those lines shaded their respective colors.
.

2.5. Pie chart

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 A pie chart (or a circle chart) is a circular statistical graphic, which is divided into slices
to illustrate numerical proportion.
 In a pie chart, the arc length of each slice (and consequently its central angle and area) is
proportional to the quantity it represents.
 Pie charts are very widely used in the business world and the mass media.
 However, they have been criticized and many experts recommend avoiding them as
research has shown it is difficult to compare different sections of a given pie chart, or to
compare data across different pie charts. Pie charts can be replaced in most cases by
other plots such as the bar

2.6. Population pyramid

 A population pyramid (age structure diagram) or "age-sex pyramid" is a graphical
illustration of the distribution of a population (typically that of a country or region of the
world) by age groups and sex; it typically takes the shape of a pyramid when the
population is growing.
 Males are usually shown on the left and females on the right, and they may be measured
in absolute numbers or as a percentage of the total population.
 The pyramid can be used to visualize the age of a particular population.
 It is also used in ecology to determine the overall age distribution of a population; an
indication of the reproductive capabilities and likelihood of the continuation of a species
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2.7. Map
A map is a symbolic depiction emphasizing relationships between elements of some space, such
as objects, regions, or themes.
Many maps are static, fixed to paper or some other durable medium, while others are dynamic or
interactive.
The space being mapped may be two dimensional, such as the surface of the earth, three
dimensional, such as showing in relief maps or the interior of the earth, or even more abstract
spaces of any dimension, such as arise in modeling phenomena having many independent
variables.
Although the earliest maps known are of the heavens, geographic maps of territory have a very
long tradition and exist from ancient times.
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World map by Gerard van Schagen, Amsterdam, 168

Unit three
3. Measure of Central Tendency
Measures of Central Tendency Measures of central tendency provide us with a summary that
describes some central or middle point of the data. There are five important measures of central
tendency, viz).
3.1. Arithmetic Mean
Arithmetic mean is also called ‘mean’ or ‘average’. It is denoted by abar above the variable
being averaged. It is defined as the sum of all observations divided by the number of
observations
To find mean of ungrouped data it is obtained by adding the raw scores and dividing the sum by
the number of items. Suppose the raw scores are x1, x2, x3,…, xn
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Example: The mean of set of ten temperature oC 7,9,11,4,7,13,9,6,11 and 13 is

founded by adding them and dividing by 10

7+9+11+4 +7+13+9+ 6+11+13

Mean =
10
Example 1
The weights in kg of 9 patients are: 54, 59, 63, 53, 73, 49, and 50, x, 45. If the
average weight is 56 kg, find x.
Suggested answer:
54+59+63+ 53+73+49+ 50+ X + 45
=56
9
446+ x
9
=56

X=58

The arithmetic mean is a widely used measure of central tendency.

It has the following major properties:
1. Every set of interval-level and ratio-level data has a mean.
2. All the values are included in computing the mean.
3. A set of data has a unique mean.
4. The mean is affected by unusually large or small data values.
Exercise 1.
The Ethiopian Electric, Light and Power Authority (EELPA) selected 20 residential customers
at random. Following are the amounts.
To the nearest birr, the customers were charged/or electrical service last month:
 Quantitative Techniques and Spatial Analysis 2021 17

54 48 58 50 25 47 75 46 60 70
67 68 39 35 56 66 33 62 65 67

To find mean for grouped data

 The arithmetic mean can be estimated from data grouped into a frequency
distribution to find the estimated mean, assume the midpoint of each class is
representative of all the data values in that class.
 Recall that the midpoint of a class is halfway between the upper and the lower
class limit.
 To find the midpoint of particular class, we add the upper and the lower class
limits and divide by 2.
 The mean of a sample of data organized in a frequency destruction is computed
by:
There are three methods to find mean for a frequency distribution.
(i) Direct method:

Where x is the mid-interval, f is the frequency, x is the mean.

We illustrate each of these methods with the help of the following

Example 2 Find the mean of the following data

x 10 15 20 25 30
f 3 6 5 4 2

Suggested answer:
x f fx
10 3 30
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15 6 90
20 5 100
25 4 100
30 2 60
Tota 20 380
l

380
20 =19
Exercise
 The company pays its daily laborers 6.50. 7.50 Or 8.50 birr per day. There are 26 daily
laborers.
 14 are paid at the 6.50-birr rate. 10 at 7.50-birr rate and 2 at the 8.50 birr rate.
 What is the mean of these daily laborers?
Example 4. Calculate the mean marks in the distribution below.

Suggested answer
 Quantitative Techniques and Spatial Analysis 2021 19

Merits and Demerits of Arithmetic Mean

The merits and demerits of arithmetic mean as follows:
Merits
1. The calculation of arithmetic mean is simple and it is unique,
2. It is clear and unambiguous since every data set has one and only one mean value
3. The calculation of arithmetic mean is based on all values given in the data set
4. The arithmetic mean is reliable single value that reflects all values in the data set.
5. The arithmetic mean is least affected by fluctuations in sample size. Its value
determined from various samples drawn from a population vary by the least
possible amount
6. It used for more rigorous further statistical analysis
7. Arithmetic mean is a stable average
Demerits
1. The value of arithmetic mean cannot be calculated accurately for open-ended class
intervals
2. It is affected by the extreme values which are not the exact representative of the data set.
3. For large data sets the calculations of arithmetic mean may sometimes be
difficult and tedious as every element is used in the calculation
 Quantitative Techniques and Spatial Analysis 2021 20

4. It cannot be calculated for qualitative characteristics such as intelligence, beauty and

loyalty
5. Arithmetic mean cannot be determined by inspection
3.2. Geometric Mean
The geometric mean is useful in finding the average of percentage, ratios indexes, or growth
Rates. It has a wider application in geography and environmental studies because we are often
Interested in finding the percentage change in rainfall, temperature, or population figures,
Such as rate of natural increase urbanization and so on.
The geometric mean of a set n positive numbers is defined as nth root of the product of n values
The formula for the geometric mean is written:
GM = √ (X1) (X2) . . . (Xn)
Example 1: The profits earned by X construction company on four recent projects were 3
Percent 2 percent, 4 percent and 6 percent. What is the geometric mean profit?
Solution:
The geometric mean is 3.46 percent, found by
Gm= n √(X1) (X2). . . (Xn)
Gm = 4√ (3) (2) (4) (6) = 4√144=3.46
The geometric mean is the fourth root of 144 or 3.461. The geometric mean profit is 3.46
percent.
The Geometric Mean (G.M) of a data set containing n observations is the n th root
of the product of the values. Consider, if x₁, x₂... x ₙ are the observations, for
which we aim to calculate the geometric mean. The formula to calculate the
geometric mean is given below:
GM = √x₁ · x₂ · ... · xₙ or GM = (x₁ · x₂ · ... · xₙ) 1/n
Merits and demerits of geometric mean
Merits
1. The values of GM is not much affected by extreme observations
2. GM is calculated by taking all the observations into account
3. It useful in determining rate of increase or decrease
Demerits
1. The calculation of GM as compared to AM is more difficult and intricate
 Quantitative Techniques and Spatial Analysis 2021 21

2. GM cannot be calculated when any of the observation in the data set is either negative or
zero
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3.4. Median
Median: The midpoint of the values after they have been ordered from the smallest to the
largest, or the largest to the smallest. There are as many values above the median as below it in
the data array.
Note: For an even set of numbers, the median will be the arithmetic average of the two middle
numbers.

Example: Compute the median for the following data. The age of a sample of five college
students is: 21,25,19,20, and 22.
Arranging the data in ascending order gives: 19, 20,21,22,25. Thus, the median is 21.
The height of four basketball players, in inches, is 76, 73, 80, and 75.
Arranging the data in ascending order gives: 73, 75, 76, and 80. Thus the median is 75.5
Exercise 3.
1. The age at marriage for a sample of eight females in Addis Ababa is given below. 17, 24,
23, 16, 21, 8, 22 and 19. What is the median age at marriage?
The median is the halfway point in a data set. The symbol for the median is MD .Before one can
find the median; the data must be arranged in order. When the data set is order, it is a data array.
The median either will be a specific value in the data set of will fall between two values.
Steps in computing the median of a data array
1. Arrange the median of a Data array
2. Find the midpoints of the array.
Example
The weights of seven grade 9 students are 45, 50, 55, 48, 56, 49, and 47, .
Find the median
Step 1. Arrange the data in order 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 55, 56,

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Step 2. Select the middle value.

45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 55, 56,
Median
Each of the above examples had an odd number of values in the data set; hence the median was
an actual data value. When there are even numbers of values in the data set, the median will fall
between two given values, as illustrated in the following example
Group median

Median for Grouped Data: To find the median for grouped data, first identify the class interval
which contains the median value or no observation (of the data set. To find such class interval,

Exercise 4 Calculation for Median Value

Dietary Energy No of Households(f) Cumulative Frequency(<UL)
(kcal/day/person)
0-500 20 20
500-1000 38 58
1000-1500 28 86
1500-2000 4 90
2000-2500 3 93
2500-3000 3 96
3000 - 3500 4 100

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Total 100 ---------

Example
Using the frequency distortion given below, find the median
Class Frequency (f)
5.5- 10.5 1
10.5- 15.5 2
15.5- 20.5 3
20.5- 25.5 5
25.5- 30.5 4
30.5- 35.5 3
35.5- 40.5 2
N=20

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The procedure for finding the median for grouped data is shown here.

A B C
Class Frequency (f) Cumulative Frequency (CF)
5.5- 10.5 1 1
10.5- 15.5 2 3
15.5- 20.5 3 6
20.5- 25.5 5 11
25.5- 30.5 4 15
30.5- 35.5 3 18
35.5- 40.5 2 20
N=20

Step 1. Make a table as shown next.

Step 2. Divide n (the sum of column B) by 2 to find the halfway point.

Step 3. Find the class that contains the tenth value by using the cumulative
frequency distribution. This class is called the median class: it contains the
median.

A B C
Class Frequency (f) Cumulative frequency (CF)
5.5- 10.5 1 1
10.5- 15.5 2 3
15.5- 20.5 3 6 cƒ
Lm 20.5- 25.5 5 ƒ 11 Median
25.5- 30.5 4 15
30.5- 35.5 3 18
35.5- 40.5 2 20
N=20

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Major properties of the median

The major properties of the median are:
1. The median is unique: that is, like the mean, there is only one median for a set of data.
2. It is not affected by extremely large or small values and is therefore a valuable measure of
central tendency when such values do occur.
3. It can be computed for a frequency distribution with an open- ended class if the median
does not lie in an open- ended class.
4. It can be computed for ratio- level, interval- level and ordinal –level data
Merits and Demerits of Median
Merits
1. Easy to calculate and understand even for professionals with low level of
mathematics and statistics
2. It is not affected by the extreme values in a data set
3. Median can be computed while dealing with a distribution with open ended
classes
4. Median can sometimes be located by simple inspection
Demerits
1. In case of even number of observations for ungrouped data, median cannot be
determined exactly
2. Median, being a positioning value, is not based on each item in a data set
3. Median is not suitable for further mathematical treatment
4. Median is more affected by fluctuations of sampling as compared to arithmetic
mean

Exercise
Let us assume that you have collected a data from a factory employing 80 workers during your
project work for this course. Let your data indicate that the daily wage of 20 workers is less than
10 Eth. Birr, of 30 workers is 10 to 20 Eth. Birr, of 14 workers is from 20 to 30 Eth. Birr, of 7
workers is 30 to 40 Eth. Birr and of the remaining 9 workers ranges from 40 to 50 Eth. Birr.
Then, calculate the median wage of the worke

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3.5. Mode
The mode of a set of data (numbers) is the value that occurs most frequently.
The mode may not exist and even if it does exist it may not be unique.
Properties of Mode
1. Mode is indeterminate in ungrouped data possessing two or more observations occurring
for the maximum number of times. By definition, there is no mode in a set of data
wherein observations occur with the same frequency.
2. In the case of grouped data, mode is the same as the mid-point of the modal class when
the immediately preceding and succeeding classes have equal frequencies.
3. When the class preceding the modal class has higher frequency than that succeeding it.
The value of mode is more than the mid-point of the modal class. And vice versa.
4. Like median, the existence of unequal and open ended classes does not interfere with the
Computation of mode. However, mode becomes indeterminate where the modal class is
an open-ended class.
Further, mode is the least used measure of central tendency as compared to mean and median
Example
1. The weight gains of 10 experimental rats fed on a special diet were 1, 0, 3, 7, 11, 5, 9, 1,
and 4, find the modal weight gain.
2. A sample of 7 measurements of the thickness of a copper wire was 0.100, 0.010, 0.009,
0.008, 0.007, 0.009, 0.009 find the modal thickness?
3. The time in minutes that 12 patients spent in a doctor’s office were 20, 15, 18, 22, 10, 12,
16, 17, 19, 21, 23, 13 find the modal time spent in the doctor’s office.
Solution
1. Mode =1 2. Modes are = 0.008, 0.009 3. No mode Remark A distribution having only
one mode is said to be bimodal and a distribution that have two modes is called
bimodal. Notation The mode of a set of numbers X1, X2, X3, Xn is usually denoted
by xˆ (x hat).

The Mode of Grouped Data

The mode for grouped data is approximated by the midpoint of the class with the largest class
frequency.

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Consider the following example.

Once the modal class is located, the value of the mode, denoted as Mo. is obtained by
substituting the values

Where
L, is the lower limit and Cm the width of the modal class
1 represents the difference, ·ignoring plus/minus sign; between the frequency of the modal
class and the class preceding it, and
 2 is the difference between the frequency of the modal class and the class succeeding it
Illustration: For the distribution given in the table below, the computation of the mode
is as' shown herein. Since (1080 - 1089) class has the maximum (25) frequencies, it is the
modal class. With L. = 1080,

 = (25 - 15) = 10, = (25 - 13) = 12, and Cm = 10,

 2
1 The value of the mode is obtained
by Substituting the values in the above equatio

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Merits and Demerits of Mode

Merits
1. Mode value is easy to understand and to calculate
2. Mode class can be inspected by inspection
4. Mode is not affected by extreme values in the distribution
5. Mode value can be calculated for open-end frequency distributions
Demerits
1. A data set may have more than one mode value which makes the comparison and
interpretation more difficult
2. It is difficult to locate modal class in the case of multi-modal frequency distributions
3. Mode is not used for further rigorous statistical analysis

Exercise
For the following data set, find and interpret the result of median and mode
Age in year Number of birth Cumulative number of birth
14.5-19.5 677 677
19.5-24.5 1908 2585
24.5-29.5 1737 4332
29.5-34.5 1040 5362
34.5-39.5 294 5656
39.5-44.5 91 5747
44.5-49.5 16 5763

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