WEATHER, CLIMATE AND ATMOSPHERE.

 Climate is usually based on an average over 30 years.

 Hydrosphere is also known as the blue planet.

Atmosphere

 90% of the atmosphere is within 15 km on the surface.

 Density decreases with increasing altitude.

 Pressure decreases with increasing altitude.

 The troposphere is 12km thick but is slightly variable.

 The Troposphere extends to 8 km at the poles.

 Temperature decreases with altitude in the troposphere.

 Temperature increases with altitude to about 10 degrees in the stratosphere until

about 48km(Temperature inversion).

 The stratosphere comes from a Greek word meaning ‘Stratified layer’. It is

stratified with dense cool air below with warm air above it.

 Troposphere comes from the Greek word ‘Turning layer’.

 The Stratosphere is not turbulent so this is where planes love to fly.

 The ozone layer is situated in the stratosphere.

 Temperature decreases with altitude in the Mesosphere, which is also known as the
‘middle layer’ to about -90 degrees.

 In the Thermosphere, temperature increases with altitude to about 1000 degrees.

 Molecules in the exosphere have enough energy to escape, this is where Helium

disappears.

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 The outer part of the mesosphere and thermosphere is known as ‘ionosphere’ since
molecules and atoms are ionized by UV light.
Homosphere does not vary in composition and is made up of the troposphere,
stratosphere, and mesosphere and has gases like (CO2, O2, Nitrogen) and makes
up 99% of the total mass of the atmosphere.

 Heterosphere varies in composition and is made up of thermosphere and

exosphere and has gases like (helium, hydrogen).

Radiation and Green House Effect

 Radiant energy is the energy propagating through space.

 Solar radiation is the energy stored in electromagnetic waves. The energy is

released when the waves are absorbed by a surface.

 Any object with a temperature above absolute zero (-273 degree Celsius) emits

solar radiation.

 Solar energy travels through vacuum space at the speed of light which is

300,000km or 186,000 miles.

 The sun emits radiation at many different wavelengths.

 Amount of radiation emitted is the function of temperature, hot substances emit

short wavelength and vice versa.

 Composition of Solar radiation = Gamma rays(10^-14), X- rays(10^-12), Ultra

violet(10^-8), Visible length, Infrared(10^-6), Microwaves(10^-2), Radio
waves(10^2).

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 Stephan Boltzman law postulates that the amount of electromagnetic radiation
emitted is directly related to its temperature(E=dT^4).

 Wiens law postulates that as temperature increases, the wavelength of maximum

emission becomes smaller, Wmax = 2898/T.
Peak energy is the part of the emission visible to the eye.

 Solar radiation is around(5u) while terrestrial is a long wave with peak around
(10u). NB: u is a millionth of a micrometer.

 Insolation is the flow rate of incoming solar radiation, the energy intercepted is
around 1367W/M^-2.

 Sunspot have a diameter of about 23, 000 miles and appear as a dark spot within
the photosphere, the peak every 11 years.

 Photo-sphere is the star's outer shell from which light is radiated.

 The sun is about 6000kelvin at the inner and 4200Kelvin on the outside.

 Reflection is when radiation returns a portion of the sun's energy.

 Refracted is when electromagnetic waves change direction after hitting a surface.

 Albedo is when a fraction of radiation is reflected by an object.

 Light objects have higher albedos and darker objects have lower albedos.

 The albedo of the earth(dark object) is about 30%.

 The albedo of the moon(light object) is around 7%.

 Without greenhouse gases, earth's atmosphere would be 33 degrees colder.

 Greenhouse gases include CO2, methane, water vapor, chlorofluorocarbon.

 Heat or Thermal energy is formed due to motions of atoms and molecules.

 Temperature is the measure of how fast or slow molecules are vibrating.

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 Conduction is the transfer of heat through direct contact.

 Convection is the transfer of energy by vertical mass motion to the atmosphere.

 Advection is the transfer of energy by horizontal mass motion in the atmosphere or

sea.

 Radiation is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic radiation.

 Potential energy is possessed by virtue of the position of an object.

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by virtue of motion.

 Heat budget is the annual balance of incoming and outgoing radiation.

 The Shortwave radiation budget(100 from the sun, molecules, dust, and cloud
reflect 30%, they absorb 20%, and only 50% reaches the earth's surface).

 The equator constantly receives 12 hours of sunlight.

 Incoming and outgoing radiation is equal at the equator (net radiation equator).

 Summer solstice occurs around June 21-22 (longer day, shorter night).

 Winter solstice occurs around Dec 22-23 (longer night, shorter day).

 Spring equinox occurs around 21

Object Albedo value(%)

Snow 50 - 95

Grass 25-30

Roads 5-10

Oceans 0-60

Forests 10-20

Water 5-80(dep on suns angle)

Thick clouds 70-80

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Asphalt 5-10

Temperature

 Temperature range is the difference between high and low temperatures(Tmax -

Tmin)(single site).

 Temp. Mean is the average of the high and low temperatures( single site).

 Isotherm are lines drawn to connect places of equal temperature.( large region).
The change between 1 degree of kelvin and Celsius is the same, only 273 is being
added.

 The change between 1 degree of fahrenheit and celsius is 9.

 0 degrees = 32 degrees fahrenheit = 273 degrees kelvin.

 C=5/9(F-32), celsius to fahrenheit, you can change of subject depending on the

variable given.

 Apart from insolation, there are other factors responsible for temperature such as
latitude, ocean current, altitude, geographic position, cloud cover and albedo and
differential heating of land and water.

 Differential heating is as a result of land opacity and proximity of a place to water.

 Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise 1 gram of a substance to 1

degree celsius.

 Water and land has a specific heat ratio of 4: 1.

OBJECT SPECIFIC HEAT

Water 1.00

Air 0.24

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Granite 0.19

Sand 0.19

Iron 0.11

 Latent heat is energy absorbed in the process of changing the state of a matter.

 60meter or 200 feet within the water is known as the illuminated zone or photic
layer because it’s the extent to which light reaches.
The Gulf Stream is a warm ocean current that flows from the Gulf of Mexico along
the east coast of North America. The Agulhas Current is a warm ocean current that
flows along the east coast of South Africa, while the Benguela Current is a cold
ocean current that flows along the west coast of southern Africa.

 The cool ocean currents off the western coast of South America is called peru or

Humboldt current.

 Leeward side is known as the region with little to no rain while windward side

has a lot of rainfall.

 Between the South Pole and the North Pole, the North Pole generally has more

lakes.

 There is more cloud in the North pole. This is because the Arctic region is
influenced by the relatively warm and moist air masses from the North Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans, which lead to the formation of clouds. The Arctic region also
experiences more atmospheric instability and cyclonic activity, which further
contribute to the formation of clouds. In contrast, the Antarctic region is one of the
driest places on Earth, and it has a polar desert climate. The cold and dry air masses
from the surrounding ice cap inhibit the formation of clouds, resulting in clear skies
and very little precipitation.

 ocean evaporation;84%, precipitation;77%, continent evaporation; 16%, global run

off;7%

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 Ocean water content;97%,continent water ;2.9%, atmospheric water or water
vapor;0.1%.

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 Atmosphere Moisture and Precipitation.

 Around 70% of the earth is covered in water.

 The supply of water on earth is constant, the idea is supported by these 3 theories;
a. cold accretion( accumulation of frozen water) b. De - gassing( release of
hydrogen and oxygen to form water and c. small comets bring water to earth.

 Latent heat ( of melting; 80 calories, of vaporization; 540 calories, of condensation;

-540 calories)

 The water cycle results in zero heat gain and zero heat loss.

 Hydrological cycle is the movement of water through the 4 spheres.

 Deposition is when gaseous molecules become solid, opposite of sublimation.

 Humidity Is the amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere.

 Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapor in a parcel of air. Since temperatures
and pressures change constantly and they change from place to place,
meteorologists usually prefer mixing ratio.

 Mixing ratio is the amount of water vapor in a parcel of air compared to dry air.
Not affected by changes in temperature or pressure. Also known as specific
humidity

 . When the number of molecules leaving water is the same as the number entering,
we call that saturation, and the pressure is the saturation vapor pressure

 Partial pressure or vapor pressure is the total atmospheric pressure attributable to

water vapor.

 Relative Humidity It is the measure of how close to being saturated air

is.Percentage of water is in air compared to how much it can hold. An increase in

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 temperature decrease relative humidity and vice - versa. If temperature is held
constant: • Adding water vapor increases RH Removing water vapor decreases

RH

 Dew point is the temperature at which water vapor condenses.The drier the air, the
more it must be cooled to reach saturation.High dew point means more moisture
content and vice - versa.

 Lifting condensation level is the point at which there is change of state of matter
from gas - liquid, latent heat is released and air cools at the adiabetic wet rate(5
degrees).

 Frost (hoar frost, white frost) is caused when the temperature is below freezing and
the air is saturated with moisture.

 Instruments for measuring humidity includes hair hygrometer and sling

hygrometer.

 Adiabetic is Heating(compression) or cooling(expansion) process that occurs as a

result of pressure change.

 Dry Adiabatic Rate= 10oC per 1000m (5.5oF per 1000ft), Wet Adiabatic Rate

= 5 oC per 1000m (2.7oF per 1000ft)

 Variation in cloud size and the amount of precipitation is related to the stability of
air. If a parcel were cooler than the surrounding environment, it would be more
dense and sink to its original position. Air of this type is called stable air and resists
vertical movement.

 Unstable air is warmer and less denser than its surrounding. It continues to rise
until it reaches an altitudes where its temperature becomes equal with that of its
surroundings.

 Absolute stability is when the environmental lapse rate is less than the wet

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 adiabatic rate.
 Absolute Instability occurs when the environmental lapse rate is greater than the
dry adiabatic rate

 Conditional Instability is more common in the atmosphere and occurs when moist
air has an environmental lapse rate between the dry and the wet adiabatic rates

(between about 5oC and 10oC per 1000 m

 Formula for calculating adiabetic effect (x=surface-(LR)*(alt/1000)).

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AIR PRESSURE AND WINDS

 Standard atmospheric pressure is 14.7 pounds per square inch.

 Air pressure can simply be measured with a barometer by measuring how the

level of a liquid changes due to different weather conditions.

 The aneroid barometer measures air pressure without the use of liquid by using a
partially evacuated chamber

 • 1084 mb in Siberia (1968) • 870 mb in a Pacific Typhoon (1979) • Remember

that average sea level pressure is 1013 mb

 Wind direction is measured by wind vane and wind speed is measured by

anemometer.

 Wind develops due to difference in Pressure gradient Force, coriolis effect, gravity,
friction and centrifugal force.

 Isobars are lines showing places of equal pressure.

 Hydrostatic is when Gravity= vertical pressure gradient force.

 PGF is caused by differential heating.

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 The Net force = PGF + G + Co + Fr + Ce

 • magnitude of the pressure gradient = (P1 – P2 / distance)

 Winds from the northern hemisphere are deflected to the right and winds from the
south to the left due to coriolis force.

 Coriolis does not exist at the equator.

 The farthest a place from the equator, the more the deflection.

 Geostrophic wind is a wind that is parallel to the isobars.

 Wind circulation is caused by PGF inducing motion.

 Winds north of the hemisphere is known anticyclones or as hurricane in Europe

and typhoon in Asia.

 Wind south of the hemisphere is known as cyclones.

 Moonsonal winds are wind system are winds that seasonally change

Direction ( harmattan winds or north atlantic winds)

PLANETRY WINDS

 Cyclones present bad weather as they spiral inwards and upwards in low pressure
centers(convergence)

 Anticyclones occur in high pressure regions annd spiral outward and

downwards(divergence)

 Planetary winds take weeks and expand 1000-40000km wide( trade winds and

westerlies)

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 Synoptic winds take days to weeks and expand 1000 - 5000km( Hurricanes and

cyclones)

 Mesoscale winds can last from minutes to hours and expand from 1- 100 km

wide( tornado, thunderstorm)

 Microscale winds can range from seconds to minutes and occupy less than a km(
dust devils, turbulence and wind gusts).

 Western intensification is water piling up westward due to equatorial winds

blowing westward.

 Hardley cell is located at roughly 0 to 30° North and South of the equator Ferrel
cell is Three-dimensional atmospheric circulation cell located at roughly 30 to 60°
North and South of the equator.

 Polar cell Three-dimensional atmospheric circulation cell located at roughly 60 to

90° North and South of the equator.

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 CLOUD FORMATION AND CLASSFIFICATION

 Cloud classification based on height: High clouds (>6,000 meters) include Cirrus,
Cirrostratus, and Cirrocumulus; Middle clouds (2,000-6,000 meters) include
Altocumulus and Altostratus; Low clouds (<2,000 meters) include Stratus, Stratocumulus,
Cumulus, and Nimbostratus.

 Cloud classification based on vertical extent: Stratus clouds are flat and featureless, Cumulus
clouds are tall and puffy, Cirrus clouds are thin and wispy, and Alto clouds appear as patches
or layers.

 Cloud formation: Orographic lifting, convection, frontal lifting, and radiation cooling can
cause cloud formation.

 Types of clouds: Cumulus, Stratus, Cirrus, Altostratus, Nimbostratus, and Cumulonimbus

clouds.

 Clouds' role in the earth's climate: They reflect sunlight back into space, absorb and trap heat,
and play a key role in the water cycle.

 Cirrus clouds: high, white, thin, detached, feathery appearance

 Sun pillar cirrus cloud: aligned ice crystals reflect light and create a sun pillar when sun is just
below horizon

 Cirrus cloud sundog: ice crystals create colorful halo around sun
 Cumulus clouds: individual globular cloud masses, flat base, cauliflower-like appearance

 Stratus clouds: sheets or layers covering much or all of sky, no distinct individual cloud units

 High clouds: above 6000m, thin and white, mostly ice crystals, include cirrus, cirrostratus,
and cirrocumulus

 Middle clouds: 2000-6000m, prefix alto, include altostratus and altocumulus

 Low clouds: below 2000m, include stratus, stratocumulus, and nimbostratus
 Clouds of vertical development: not in any height group, base in low height range and extend
upward, associated with unstable weather, include cumulus and cumulonimbus

 Fog: cloud with base at or near ground, types include radiation, advection, upslope, steam,
and evaporation fog

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 UNDERSTANDING FONTS
 Air masses are large bodies of air with similar characteristics, defined by temperature and
moisture parameters, and named based on their source region.

 There are five types of air masses: Continental Polar, Continental Tropical, Maritime Polar,
Maritime Tropical, and Arctic.

 Fronts are narrow zones of transition between air masses of contrasting density, characterized
by temperature, moisture, wind shift, and pressure trough.

 There are four types of fronts: stationary front, cold front, warm front, and occluded front.

 Cold fronts are marked by a blue line with blue triangles, associated with cumulus and
cumulonimbus clouds, and produce showers and thunderstorms.

 Warm fronts are marked by a red line with red semi-circles, associated with stratus clouds,
fog, and general rain or snow.

 Stationary fronts are marked by alternating blue and red lines with triangles and semi-circles
pointed in opposite directions and tend to meander.

 Occluded fronts are marked by a purple line with alternating triangles and semicircles, and
there are two types: cool-type and cold-type.

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