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Winter 2023 Infrastructure Engineering

1. Illustrate types of crossing with neat sketches.

Ans. 1. Based on Angle of Intersection of the Gauge Faces, Crossings can be
Classified as Follows :
. An acute angle or V-crossing in which the intersection of the two gauge
faces form an acute angle.
. An obtuse angle or diamond crossing in which the two gauge faces meet at
an obtuse angle.
. A square crossing in which two tracks cross at right angle. Such crossings are
rarely used in actual practice.
2. Built-up Crossing : . This is the type of crossing in which two wing rails
and "V" which consists of splice and point rails (or two point rails) are
assembled together by means of bolts and distance blocks to form a
crossing. This type of crossing is commonly used on Indian Railways.
Such crossings have the advantage that initial cost is low and repairs
can be carried out simply by welding or replacement of each
constituent separately. A crossing becomes unserviceable when the
wear is more than 10 mm. The built-up crossing, however, lacks
rigidity, the bolts need frequent checking and sometimes break under
fast and heavy traffic.
3. Cast Steel Crossing : . This type is one piece cast crossing and hence
needs very little maintenance. Comparatively, it is more rigid crossing,
being one complete mass. The initial cost of such crossing is however
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4. quite high and its repairs and maintenance pose a number of

problems.
5. Cast Manganese Steel Solid Crossing (CMS) :
. Due to increase in traffic and use of heavier axle loads, ordinary built-up
crossings manufactured from medium manganese rails are subjected to
very heavy wear and tear specially in fast lines and suburban sections.
With electric traction past experience has shown that life of such built-up
crossing varies from 6 months to 2 years depending on the location and
service conditions.

. Manganese steel possess higher resistance to wear and strength and

hence has longer life. The average life of CMS crossing is expected to be
about 4 times that of an ordinary built-up crossing. Also, they are free
from bolts and loose components which may work loose or wear under
traffic and their use therefore, helps in reducing cost especially in
locations of very high traffic density. CMS crossings are particularly useful
in continuous welding of rails through points and crossings as they do not
need any special.
6. Combined Rail and Cast Crossing :
. This is a combination of the above two types and consists of cast steel
nose finished to ordinarily rail faces to form two legs of the crossing.
Though the worn out wing rails can be welded, but liability of the nose to
sudden fracture is still present.
7. Spring or Movable Crossing :
. In this type of crossing, one wing rail is movable and is held against the
VEE of the crossing with a strong helical spring and other wing rail is fixed.
When a vehicle passes on the main track, the movable wing rail is snug
with the crossing and the vehicle has not to negotiate any gap in the
crossing.
. In case of the vehicle has to pass out a turnout track, the movable wing is
forced out by the wheel flanges and the vehicle has to negotiate a gap as
in a normal crossing. This type is suitable when high speed traffic exists on
the main tracks and slow speed traffic exists.
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2. Explain necessity of Turnout with its components.

1. Railroad Switch:
One set of railroad switch includes 2 stock rails, 2 switch rails and a switch machine. It is
used to change the position of switch rails by switch machine to ensure the turnout open
direction.

Stock Rail
Stock rail refers to the steel rail that made from standard rail profile, with one side straight
and the other side curved. To avoid stock rail from moving, rail braces are installed on the
outer side. The top of stock rails are always quenched to improve surface hardness and
wear resistance.

Point Rail
Point rails, also named switch rail or point blades, which lie between the diverging stock
rails, are movable and direct the trains coming from the rail points towards either the
straight or the diverging track.

2. Connection Parts
Connection parts consist of 2 straight rails and 2 curve guide rails, which are help to
connect the switch rail with frog and guard rail as a complete railway turnout.

3. Frog and Guard Rail

This part is made up of guard rail, wing rail and railway frog to ensure the safety trains
passing through the junction of two routes.

Guard Rail
Guard rail, or called check rail, is a short rail fixed alongside the outer rail and opposite the
frog to guide the trail wheels passing through the appropriate flange way and avoid
derailing. Guard rails are placed in pairs, in other words, each frog require two check rails.

3. Explain the characteristic of airport explain with sketch.

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Ans . . Air Transportation is the fastest mode of transport.

. It carries goods and passengers through airways by using different aircrafts like passenger
aircraft, cargo aircraft, helicopters etc.

Besides passengers it generally carries goods that are less bulky or of high value. In hilly and
mountainous areas where other mode of transport is not accessible, air transport is an
important as well as convenient mode.

It is mostly used for transporting goods and passengers during natural calamities like
earthquake and floods etc. During war, air transport plays an important role in carrying
soldiers as well as supplies to the required areas.

. Air transport may be classified as domestic and international air transport.

. While domestic air transport mainly facilitates movement within the country, international air

transport is used for carrying goods and passengers between different countrics.

. Air transport is carried out in fixed air routes, which connect almost all the countries.

. An airport is an aerodrome with extended facilities. mostly for commercial air transport.

. Airports often have facilities to store and maintain aircraft, and a control tower.

. An airport consists of a landing area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including
at least one operationally active surface such as a runway for a plane to take off or a helipad, and
often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers, hangars and terminals.

Larger airports may have airport aprons, taxiway ,bridges, air traffic control centre's, passenger
facilities

such as restaurants and lounges, and emergency services

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4. Define : a) Airport Capacity b) Backwash c) Span of wings d) Lighthouse e)Locomotive f )

Coaches

Ans. A) Airport : a place where aircraft regularly take off and land, with buildings for passengers to
wait in:

b) Backwash : a backward flow or movement (as of water or air) produced especially by a

propelling force also : the fluid that is moving backward

C ) Span Of Wings : the distance between the tips of a pair of wings (as of a bird or an airplane)

d) Lighthouse : A lighthouse is a tower, building, or other type of physical structure designed to

emit light from a system of lamps and lenses and to serve as a beacon for navigational aid for
maritime pilots at sea or on inland waterways.

e) Locomotive : a self-propelled vehicle that runs on rails and is used for moving railroad cars.

f) Coaches : A coach is one of the separate sections of a train that carries passengers.

5) How Harbours are classified based on its utility and location.

Ans. Classification of Harbours based upon the Utility :

1 Harbours of refuge,
2. Commercial harbours,
3. Fishery harbours,
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4. Military harbours and

5. Marina harbours.
1. Harbours of Refuge : Naval ships or ships with aircrafts need refuge in emergency and
hence such harbours are provided. For example, Vizhinjam, India is a harbour of refuge.
2. Commercial Harbour : The harbour is used for loading and unloading cargos. Good and
emergency repair can also take place. These harbours are situated near coasts of estuaries
and or inland river coast. Kolkata is a commercial harbour.
3. Fishery Harbour : Harbour used specially for loading and unloading the catch is called as
fishery harbour. Fishery harbour should have refrigeration stores with plenty of storing
space for preserving the catch. Mangalore is a fishery harbour.
4. Military Harbour : It is a harbour to cater the needs of naval vessels. They serve as
depots too. Mumbai harbour is a military harbour.
5. Marina Harbours : These are the harbours which provide facilities like food, fuel,
telephone, etc. for owners of small boat. These types of harbours are having temporary or
permanent berths.

The harbours are classified, based upon the location as

follows :
1. Coastal Natural,
2. Coastal Breakwater,
3. Coastal Tide gates,
4. River Natural,
5. River Basins,
6. River Tide Hates.
7. Canal or Lake and
8. Open Roadstead.
1. Coastal Natural : Represents a sheltered site theoutcome of a natural profile of the
coast, creating a natural barrier such as a cape, a reef or an island. The above image
depicts the harbour of Kingston, Jamaica. About 2,100 (46.0%) ports are in this category.
underlining that the selection of a port site is dominantly influenced by the quality of the
harbour.
3. Coastal Tide Gates : A harbour behind a set of locks or other mechanical devices built to
insure sufficient water leveis in the harbour for all tide levels. In many cases, ships can
enter or exit the port only at certain times of the day when water levels are adequate.
Only 39 (0.8%) such ports exist, such as Mumbai port.
4. River Natural : A harbour located along a river where water is not retained in any
artificial means. Tne harbour often consists of quays or wharves parallel to the river banks.
Piers may also extend into the river. About 850 (18.5%) such ports exist, such as
acksonville, Florida.
S. River Basins : A river harbour where basins have been excavated to accommodate ships,
often parallel to the fow of the river. This confers the advantage of additional berth space
without impeding fluvial navigation. 77 (1.6%) such ports exist, including Bremen,
Germany.

6. River Tide Gates : A river harbour behind a set of locks or other mechanical devices built
to insure sufficient water levels in the harbour for all tide levels. Such harbours tend to be
located close to the ocean, such as in a river delta or estuary for the case of Bremenhaven,
Germany (estuary of the river Weser). Only 47 (1.0%) such ports exist
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7. Canal or Lake : A harbour located aiong an artificial canal or by a river accessible through
a navigable waterway. 67 (1.4%) such ports exist, including Brugge, Belgium.

6) Define fixtures and fastening. Explain its types.

Ans. a) Fixture : something that is fixed or attached (as to a building) as a permanent appendage
or as a structural part

b) Fastening : A f fastening is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or

more objects together. In general, fasteners are used to create non-permanent joints; that is,
joints that can be removed or dismantled without damaging the joining components.

Types Of fastening :

Screws: An externally threaded fastener with high durability and better grip strength

· Bolts: A partially threaded fastener that holds two parts together also called threaded bolts

· Nuts: It is internally threaded and fits into a bolt for securing objects and preventing loosening

· Rivets: It forms permanent joints between objects, also contains pop rivets

· Washers: A flat disc that is used with a nut and bolt for load distribution

· Nails: A long and thin piece of metal used for joining objects

· Anchors: it is used for fixing objects to concrete surfaces

Types Of Fixtures :

1.Turning Fixtures:

These fixtures are generally mounted on the nose of the machine spindle or a faceplate, and the
workpieces hold them. The fixture may have to be provided with a counterweight or balance the
unbalance fixture whenever necessary.

2. Milling Fixtures:

Milling fixtures are typically mounted on the nose of the machine spindle or a faceplate, and the
workpieces hold them. The table is shifted and set in the proper position about the cutter. The
workpieces are located in the base of the fixture and clamped before starting the operation.

3. Broaching Fixtures:
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Broaching fixtures are used on different broaching machines to locate, hold and support the
workpieces during the operations, such as keyway broaching operations, such as keyway
broaching, hole broaching, etc.

4. Indexing Fixtures:

Several components need machining on different surfaces such that their machined surface
surfaces or forms are evenly spaced. Such elements must be indexed equally as many as the
number of surfaces to be machined. The holding devices (jigs or fixtures) used are made to carry a
suitable indexing mechanism. A fixture having such a device is known as an indexing fixture

5. Tapping Fixtures:

Tapping fixtures are specially designed to position and firmly secure identical workpieces to cut
internal threads in drilled holes. Odd-shaped and unbalanced components will always need such
fixtures, especially when the tapping operation is to be carried out repeatedly on a mass scale on
such parts.

6. Duplex Fixtures:

It is the name given to the fixture which holds two similar components simultaneously and
facilitates simultaneously machining of these components at two separate stations.

8. Welding Fixtures:

Welding fixtures are carefully designed to hold and support the various components welded
in proper locations and prevent distortions in welded structures. For this, the locating element
needs to be careful; clamping has to be light but firm, and the placement of clamping elements
has to be clear of the welding area. The fixture must be pretty stable and rigid to withstand the
welding stresses.

7) (a) Define Hanger with its types. (b) Define Gauge with its types.

Ans. (a) Define Hanger with its types.

Hangers in construction are devices used to support and anchor different systems within a
building's structure. They are designed to bear the weight of the supported elements, prevent
sagging, and maintain the integrity of the installation

b) Define gauge with its types :

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To gauge is to measure or test. The verb gauge means to estimate or measure, while the
noun gauge is a tool you can use to make such a measurement. If you've ever seen someone
check the air pressure in a tire, the instrument she used was called a tire gauge

• Types : Plug gauges: These are used for measuring the shapes and sizes of the holes.

• Ring gauges: These are used for measuring the external diameters.

• Taper gauges: These are used for tapering the testing gauges.

• Snap gauges: These are used for measuring the shafts.

8) What are the applications of Coning of wheel, Tilting of rail, Adzing of Sleeper?

Ans. a) coning of wheel :

• To check lateral movement of wheels.

• To avoid damage to inner faces of rails.

• To avoid discomfort to passengers.

b) Tilting Of Rail : Tilting of rails: Rails are tilted inward at an angle of 1 in 20 to reduce
wear and tear on the rails as well as on the tread of the wheels. As the pressure of the
wheel acts near the inner edge of the rail, there is heavy wear and tear on the rail.

c) Adzing of slepper : The process of cutting the wooden sleeper at a slope of 1 in 20 at

the rail seat before laying is known as adzing of the wooden sleeper. This is done to enable
the rails to be slightly tilted inwards at a cant of 1 in 20.

9) Describe the full-face method of Tunneling in hard rock with neat sketch.

Ans. . This method is suitable for small tunnels through stable and self-supporting rocks.
Since the fullsection is tackled in one continuous operation, additional units of tunneling
equipment and man poweris needed.The present day method of shield tunneling and
Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) are very suitable forfull face method.The full face method is
a particularly useful for small tunnels having diameter below 6 m and facearea below 19
m2.The entire section is drilled, and the holes are loaded and the explosives are
discharged. The debris or broken rocks are collected through mucking equipmentIn case of
larger diameters the full face area increases above these limits and the equipment costs
andsupport problems make the operation uneconomical. In the case of poor ground
conditions the problem becomes all the more difficult.
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This method has the following advantages :

-The operation is simple and minimum quantity of equipment is needed.
-Total ground disturbances and settlement are minimum.
-Simplicity of work.
-In situations where multi-face excavation cannot be adopted this system provides
definiteadvantage.
-Mucking truck can be positioned once and for further mucking the position is shifted
inaccording to the progress of the work.

10) Explain classification of tunnel based on Size and Shape.

Ans. A) Circular Shaped Tunnels:-

This Type Of Tunnels Strong In Order To Resistance To External Pressure Caused By

Water, Soil and Ground.

Circular Shape Tunnels Not Suitable For Railways, And Highway Transportation Mainly
Used For Sewage Lines.

B) Horse Shoe Tunnels:-

Horse Shoe Tunnels Can With Stand Internal And External Pressures, Having Semi-
Circular Rood With arch Sides, Commonly Uses For Railway And Roadways.

C) D-Shaped Tunnels:-

Where The Risk Of Failure Or Collapse Caused By External Pressure From Water Or
Loose Unstable Soil Conditions On Tunnel Lining Is Non-Existent, These Types Of Tunnel
Roof Also Called Segmented Roof Takes Up All The Load And Distributes It To The
Straight Walls.

D) Elliptical Tunnels:-

The Smaller Cross Section At The Bottom Maintain Flow At The Required Self Cleaning
Velocity, They Used In Grounds Compare To Rocks And These Tunnels Serve As Water
Sewage Conditions.

Elliptical Tunnels Difficult To Construct.

E) Rectangular Tunnels:-
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Rectangular Tunnels Suitable For Hard Rock Sites And Mainly Uses For Pedestrian
Passage, But This Type Of Tunnels Are Costly.

F) Egg-Shaped Tunnels:-

Egg Shaped Tunnels Suitable For Sewage Lines As They Have Self Cleaning Velocity In
Dry Weather, Egg Shaped Tunnels Can Resist External As Well As Internal Pressure.

11) What is breakwater? Illustrate it with its types.

Ans. . Breakwaters are structures constructed on coasts as part of coastal defense or to

protect an anchorage from the effects of both weather and long shore drift.

· A structure protecting a shore area, harbor, anchorage or basin from wave disturbance.

. A barrier that breaks the force of waves, as before a harbor.

· Breakwater are the structures constructed to enclose the harbours to protect them from
the effect of wind generated waves by reflecting and dissipating their force or energy. Such
a construction makes it possible to use the area thus enclosed as a safe anchorage for
ships and to facilitate loading and unloading of water by means of wave breakers.

Types Of Breakwater :

-Detached breakwater, -Head land breakwaters, -Nearshore breakwaters

-Attached breakwater, -Emerged breakwaters, -Submerged breakwaters

-Floating breakwaters

12) Explain necessity of Tunnel Lining & Tunnel Drainage.

Ans. A) Tunnel Lining : Tunnel linings are the support system of a tunnel or shaft. Tunnel
lining can be temporary, primary or permanent, and constructed from steel and concrete
in many forms.

Temporary tunnel linings are used before the permanent lining can be put in place.

Primary tunnel linings are used to stabilize the tunnel surface before the permanent lining
can be put in place.
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The permanent tunnel lining is designed to carry the long-term loads of the tunnel. The
design may include the primary support system.

The tunnel lining construction method will depend on the ground conditions and geological
strata. There are many different types of lining, including:

• Precast concrete segments

• In-situ concrete that is cast in position

• In-situ concrete that is sprayed in position

When the ground condition is soft, the lining system must support the surrounding ground
and the loads from the jacking equipment.

Cast-iron and steel segmented linings are also used in soft ground. They are durable and
have high compressive strength. Cast- iron and steel segments are then finished using a
sprayed concrete to infill the segments and protect them from corrosion.

Precast concrete linings are more economical than cast-iron and steel, but they can be
problematic to achieve water tightness.

When tunnelling through self-supporting ground, expanding tunnel linings can be used.
The tunnelling machine shield pushes forward, leaving an unsupported space. The precast
concrete lining is then put into place, expanded against the tunnels exposed ground, and
pushed out under pressure.

B) Tunnel Drainage :

. The art of collection and removal of water entering the tunnels during and after their
constructions is known as drainage of tunnels.

. If proper arrangements of drainage during construction are not adopted, the seepage
water affect the tunnel. Necessity of Drainge of Tunnels

. An efficient drainage system is necessary during construction of tunnels to have more

progress of work.
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. After the construction of tunnel is over, its drainage is also essential to reduce wear and
tear of the communication route and to achieve more safety of the moving vehicles.

Classification of Drainage system

There are two types of drainage system

1 Temporary Drainage system. 2. Permanent Drainage system.

1. Temporary Drainage System : The drainage system provided during the construction
of a tunnel is known as temporary drainage system. It can be provided by

one of the following system.

. Open Ditch Drainge System : In this system water is collected and removed in open
ditches, laid with proper slopes along the length of tunnel.

. Pumping System : In pumping system, pumps are installed with sumps for collections
and pumping the water out of the tunnel, Now-a-days, pumping system is generally
preferred over open-ditch system.

2. Permanent Drainage System: The drainage system provided after the construction of
tunnel is known as permanent drainage system.

This type of drainage system can be provided by any one

of the following method.

(i) By Providing Central Drain. (ii) By Providing iron shed along with side drain

(iii) By Providing side drains

(i) By Providing Central Drain : In this method, a central drain is provided between the two
railway tracks or under road pavement. The capacity of central drain should be sufficient to
handle the maximum flow of water expected in the tunnel. The central drain can also be
covered with facility for inspection and cleaning. The man holes for inspection should be
provided at a distance of 30 m to 50 m. This method is suitable when a huge quantity of water
does not come through the roof and side walls of the tunnel.
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(ii) By Providing Iron Shed along with Side Drain: In this method, a continuous, corrugated iron
shed is provided along with side drains. The iron shed is soshaped that it facilitates shedding
of water, leakage though sides of the tunnel without dropping.

This method is suitable where much. water leaks though the roof or side walls of the tunnel.
This method is costly and iron shed area subjected to rapid corrosion.

13) Write a short note on methods of tunneling in soft rock.

Ans.A) Forepoling Method :

· This is probably the only system advocated for running ground and similar soils.

· This method is slow, time-consuming, and requires skilled miners.

· Tunnels of small dimensions required for laying sewers, gas pipes, etc., at ordinary
depths could be constructed through this method.

B) Needle Beam Method :

. This method is suitable for soils where the roof could stand for some minutes without support.

· This method could be advanced by 10' to 12' length per day.

· The needle beam consists of a stout timber beam or a composite flitched beam and forms
the temporary primary support during the excavation

C) Army Method :

· The United States Army devised this method for constructing small tunnels at reasonably
shallow depths. This was mainly used for laying underground sewers.

· The advantage of this method lies in its simplicity and economy as only a few timber planks,
with 1-2 trench jacks, form the leading equipment.

D) Belgian Method :

· This is a popular method and is suitable for all classes of moderately firm or hard soils.
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· The advantage of the Belgian method lies in lighter timber sections, as the timber is placed
closely.

· Disadvantage is due to the system of the underpinning of the built arch, mainly when
theavoidable subsidence of the soil may occur, causing settlement and cracks in the arch
masonry.

E) English Method :

· This method involves using a lot of timber, and the most significant disadvantage is the
frequent shifting of heavy timber logs back and forth.

F) American Method : · This method is suitable for large-sized railway or highway tunnels.

G) Linear Plate Method

> Plain or corrugated steel plates are used to support the soil during excavation

> The size of plates are o.9x0.4 with flange of 0.05m

> Plates are bolted to each other through holes in flange

H) Shield Method :

> This method is used for driving a tunnel through water bearing strata

> Shield is an equipment which acts as a bridge with roof for workers

> A shield is a movable frame and it is used to support the face of tunnel

> The excavation & lining of tunnel can be carried out under protection of shield

i) Compressed Air Method :

> Most modern method used for tunneling in soft grounds having water bearing strata.

> Timber support is not required, support is provided by compressed air into enclosed space
to prevent collapse of roof and sides of tunnel
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> Air pressure adopted is approximately 1kg/cm^2

> If pressure will be more than working hour will reduce which will increase the cost of labors
and the construction cost as well

14) Define : a) Dock b) Tides c)Waves d) Runway e) Swash f) Currents g) Wharf

Ans. a) Dock : Dock is an enclosed area of water used for loading. unloading, building or
repairing ships. Such a dock may be created by building enclosing harbour walls into an
existing natural water space, or by excavation within what would otherwise be dry land.

b) Tides : Tides are very long-period waves that move through the ocean in response to the forces
exerted by the moon and sun. Tides originate in the ocean and progress toward the coastlines
where they appear as the regular rise and fall of the sea surface.

c) Waves : a disturbance or variation that transfers energy progressively from point to point in a
medium and that may take the form of an elastic deformation or of a variation of pressure,
electric or magnetic intensity, electric potential, or temperature.

d) Runway : A runway is the area of an airport where an aircraft can land or takeoff. Their length is
determined by the size of the airport and the type of aircraft expected to land there. Runways are
oriented to the direction of the wind that blows the most in the area.

e) Swash : to splash, as things in water, or as water does: Waves were swashing against the piers.
to dash around, as things in violent motion.

f) Currents : the part of a fluid body (as air or water) moving continuously in a certain direction.

g) Wharf : a structure built along or at an angle from the shore of navigable waters so that ships
may lie alongside to receive and discharge cargo and passengers

A wharf is a structure providing berthing space for vessels, essential for loading and discharging
cargo in ports and harbors.

15) Illustrate the term Airport Lighting.

Ans. · During day/night time when the visibility is low a signal light is used to convey information
to pilot

. During the early days flood lighting system is used

· Flood lights of high intensity are used on runways

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· Remaining area consisting of apron, hangar lighted with flood lights spaced at 15m interval

. During landing or take off only flood lines at end of runway are turned on

· With time flood lights are replaced by runway lights

· Placed in pairs, one on each side of runway, 3m outwards to edge of runway with longitudinal
spacing of 6om

· Threshold lighting at end of runway are green

· Placed at right angle to c/l of runway

· Taxiways are lighted with pairs of blue colour lights placed at 1.5m interval

· To achieve uniformity and to guide pilots for unfamiliar airports, colours and general
arrangement

of airport lights are standardized.

· Airport lights are kept clean, well-maintained, checked regularly for faulty bulbs and
replacement.

· Tough and laborious job, major airport contains 30,000 lights

· Provision of emergency power supplies, which can take over in seconds in case of any power
failure.

FACTORS AFFECTING AIRPORT LIGHTING:

· Airport classification, . Amount of traffic, · Availability of power

. Nature of aircraft using the airport, · Type of night operation plans

· Type of landing surfaces provided, · Weather condition, etc.

ELEMENTS OF AIRPORT LIGHTING:

. Airport beacon, · Approach lighting, · Apron and hangar lighting, · Boundary lighting

· Lighting of landing direction indicator, · Lighting of wind direction indicator

· Runway lighting, · Taxiway lighting. · Threshold lighting

..
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