PHYSICS PRACTICAL NOTES

In this practical on Newton's second law, we are working through the

procedures and discussing points of interest as we work through the
investigation. Newton's second law states the acceleration of an
object is in the direction of the net force. The acceleration is directly
proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to its mass.
The formula Fnet is equals to MA expresses the relationships
between the net force, the mass of the object and its acceleration.

The basic setup is a trolley on a track attached with a light,

inextensible string, to weight that hangs over a pulley. The string
must be light so it has almost no mass compared with the weights
and the trolley. It must not stretch. We say it must be inextensible.
The force of the weight is exerted 100% on the trolley. There is no
stretching of the string. Whenever something moves, it experiences
kinetic friction or forces which resist its motion, such as air friction.
This holds true for the motion of the trolley on the track. The trolley
tends to slow down a little as it travels along the track.

We'll use the Ticker timeout to measure the trolley speed. Ticker
timeout is a gadget which has a vibrating point. That makes marks
on carbonized tape. We call the tape Ticker tape. If the pointer hits
the tape hard at regular time intervals, while we pull it through the
Ticker timer, we can see dots on the tape. The tape was running
through the machine at a constant rate. We can even measure the
speed of the tape. Measure the distance it moved in, say, 5 intervals
of time, and calculate the average speed as distance divided by
time.

The frequency of vibration is the same as frequency of vibration of

the S-con main supply. In South Africa, electric power is applied at a
frequency of 50 Hz, 50 cycles per second. The period of vibration is
equal to the inverse of its frequency. T equals 1 over F. T equals 1
over 50. Therefore, T equals 0.02 seconds. We have marked off a
section of 5 gaps and measured the distance the tape travelled
during these 5 intervals. It travelled 19 millimetres in this time. The
time taken is 5 times 0.02 seconds, which gives us 0.1 seconds.
Distance travelled equals 19 millimetres, which equals 0.019 meters.
The average speed equals distance divided by time, which equals
0.019 meters, divided by 0.1 seconds. And that gives us an answer
of 0.19 meters per second.
Our first task is to raise the tracks efficiently for the trolley to run
freely down the track at constant velocity, while it pulls the Ticker
tape through the Ticker timer. When we achieve this, we have set up
a friction compensated track. Newton's second law deals with the
net force of the object. If there is friction acting on the object, the
pulling force of the volume will be applied force, not the net force.
We want to be able to record results when Newton's second law,
because we want to know the net force of the trolley. The friction
compensated track allows us to use the pulling force of falling
weights as the net force acting on the trolley. That's really cool.

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. It is a change in

velocity divided by the change in time. Acceleration is the final
velocity minus the initial velocity divided by the time. We know how
to measure the average velocity. So all we have to do is measure the
average velocity at two different time intervals to get the initial and
final velocities. We also have to work out delta T. That is how much
time passed while the velocity changed. Here's a section of tape for
the trolley accelerating uniformly on the track. I've marked off three
consecutive segments of five gaps between the dots. I've measured
the distance travelled in each time interval. Remember, each time
interval takes five times 0.02 seconds, which is 0.1 seconds.
Calculate the average initial and average final velocity.

The net force is equal to the weight of the slotted mass pieces, which
will hang over the pulley. So we make a note of the total mass of the
slotted mass hanger. This mass hanger has a mass of 5 grams. And
the slotted mass piece has a mass of 5 grams. So the total mass is
10 grams. The net force equals the mass of the hanger times the
acceleration due to gravity. We must convert the grams to
kilograms. We divide 10 grams by 1000 grams per kilogram and get
0.010 kilograms. So the net force in this case is 0.098 Newton. Now
we are set up ready to begin taking measurements.

SUMMARIZED NOTES
 Newton's second law: Explains the relationship between
acceleration, net force, and mass.
 Trolley setup: Involves a trolley on a track with a light,
inextensible string, and weight.
 Compensation for friction: Raising the track slightly to
compensate for friction and resistive forces.
 Trolley speed measurement: Using a Ticker timer to measure
the trolley speed.
 Frequency and period calculation: Determining the frequency
and period of vibration for the Ticker timer.
 Trolley acceleration measurement: Using the ticker timer to
measure trolley acceleration.
 Net force and mass calculation: Calculating the net force and
mass of the system for measurements.
 Setting up for measurements: Preparing the ticker timer and
trolley for measurements.
 Analysis of results: Analysing the results for different
accelerating masses.
 Part C: Investigating the relationship between acceleration and
mass.

CALCULATION RELATED NOTES

1. Measurement of Trolley Speed:
 Ticker timeout frequency: 50 Hz
 Period of vibration (T): 0.02 seconds (T = 1/50)
 Distance travelled in 5 intervals: 19 millimetres
 Time taken: 0.1 seconds (5 times 0.02 seconds)
 Average speed: Distance / Time = 0.19 meters / 0.1 seconds =
0.19 meters per second
2. Acceleration Calculation:
 Change in velocity: Final velocity - Initial velocity
 Time taken for velocity change (ΔT): 0.2 seconds (2 times 0.1
seconds)
 Initial velocity: 0.38 meters per second
 Final velocity: 0.48 meters per second
 Acceleration (a) = Change in velocity / ΔT = (0.48 m/s - 0.38
m/s) / 0.2 s = 0.1 m/s^2 / 0.2 s = 0.5 m/s^2
3. Net Force Calculation:
 Total mass of the system: 10 grams (0.010 kilograms)
 Acceleration due to gravity: 9.8 m/s^2
 Net force (Fnet) = Mass × Acceleration = 0.010 kg × 9.8 m/s^2
= 0.098 Newton
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion:
When a Net-Force acts on an object, it accelerates in the direction of
the Net-Force. The Acceleration is Directly Proportional to the Net-
Force and the Acceleration is Inversely Proportional to the Object's
Mass.

Fnet = ma

Fnet – Net Force

m – Mass
a - Acceleration

Newton's law of Universal Gravitation:

Each Particle in the Universe attracts every Other Particle in the
Universe with a Force that is Directly Proportional to the product of
their masses and Inversely Proportional to the square(x²) of the
distance between their centres.
 Gm1 m2
F= r²

F - Gravitational Force (N)

m1 /m2 - Mass (kg)
r - Distance from Centres (m)
G - Gravitational constant = 6,67x10−11Nm² Kg−2

GM
g= r²

g - Acceleration (m/s²)
G - Gravitational constant = 6,67x10−11Nm² Kg−2
M - Mass of Planet (kg)
r² - Radius of Specific Planet Squared. (m)

Ticker tape
experiment
Outcomes:
● Designs and evaluates
investigative data in order to
obtain primary and secondary
data
and information
● Conducts investigations to
collect valid and reliable
primary and secondary data
and
information
● 1.2 Conduct a practical
investigation to gather data to
facilitate the analysis of
instantaneous and average
velocity through
- Quantitative, first-hand
measurements
- Graphical representation and
interpretation of data
Aim: How does a ticker tape
timer record the motion of an
object?
Hypothesis: The ticker
tape time will accurately
represent the motion of
electricity through
the hammer which will dot the
paper to illustrate the motion
of the electrons back and forth
Ticker tape
experiment
Outcomes:
● Designs and evaluates
investigative data in order to
obtain primary and secondary
data
and information
● Conducts investigations to
collect valid and reliable
primary and secondary data
and
information
● 1.2 Conduct a practical
investigation to gather data to
facilitate the analysis of
instantaneous and average
velocity through
- Quantitative, first-hand
measurements
- Graphical representation and
interpretation of data
Aim: How does a ticker tape
timer record the motion of an
object?
Hypothesis: The ticker
tape time will accurately
represent the motion of
electricity through
the hammer which will dot the
paper to illustrate the motion
of the electrons back and forth
Ticker tape
experiment
Outcomes:
● Designs and evaluates
investigative data in order to
obtain primary and secondary
data
and information
● Conducts investigations to
collect valid and reliable
primary and secondary data
and
information
● 1.2 Conduct a practical
investigation to gather data to
facilitate the analysis of
instantaneous and average
velocity through
- Quantitative, first-hand
measurements
- Graphical representation and
interpretation of data
Aim: How does a ticker tape
timer record the motion of an
object?
Hypothesis: The ticker
tape time will accurately
represent the motion of
electricity through
the hammer which will dot the
paper to illustrate the motion
of the electrons back and forth
Ticker tape
experiment
Outcomes:
● Designs and evaluates
investigative data in order to
obtain primary and secondary
data
and information
● Conducts investigations to
collect valid and reliable
primary and secondary data
and
information
● 1.2 Conduct a practical
investigation to gather data to
facilitate the analysis of
instantaneous and average
velocity through
- Quantitative, first-hand
measurements
- Graphical representation and
interpretation of data
Aim: How does a ticker tape
timer record the motion of an
object?
Hypothesis: The ticker
tape time will accurately
represent the motion of
electricity through
the hammer which will dot the
paper to illustrate the motion
of the electrons back and forth
Ticker tape
experiment
Outcomes:
● Designs and evaluates
investigative data in order to
obtain primary and secondary
data
and information
● Conducts investigations to
collect valid and reliable
primary and secondary data
and
information
● 1.2 Conduct a practical
investigation to gather data to
facilitate the analysis of
instantaneous and average
velocity through
- Quantitative, first-hand
measurements
- Graphical representation and
interpretation of data
Aim: How does a ticker tape
timer record the motion of an
object?
Hypothesis: The ticker
tape time will accurately
represent the motion of
electricity through
the hammer which will dot the
paper to illustrate the motion
of the electrons back and forth
Ticker tape
experiment
Outcomes:
● Designs and evaluates
investigative data in order to
obtain primary and secondary
data
and information
● Conducts investigations to
collect valid and reliable
primary and secondary data
and
information
● 1.2 Conduct a practical
investigation to gather data to
facilitate the analysis of
instantaneous and average
velocity through
- Quantitative, first-hand
measurements
- Graphical representation and
interpretation of data
Aim: How does a ticker tape
timer record the motion of an
object?
Hypothesis: The ticker
tape time will accurately
represent the motion of
electricity through
the hammer which will dot the
paper to illustrate the motion
of the electrons back and forth
Ticker tape
experiment
Outcomes:
● Designs and evaluates
investigative data in order to
obtain primary and secondary
data
and information
● Conducts investigations to
collect valid and reliable
primary and secondary data
and
information
● 1.2 Conduct a practical
investigation to gather data to
facilitate the analysis of
instantaneous and average
velocity through
- Quantitative, first-hand
measurements
- Graphical representation and
interpretation of data
Aim: How does a ticker tape
timer record the motion of an
object?
Hypothesis: The ticker
tape time will accurately
represent the motion of
electricity through
the hammer which will dot the
paper to illustrate the motion
of the electrons back and forth
Ticker tape
experiment
Outcomes:
● Designs and evaluates
investigative data in order to
obtain primary and secondary
data
and information
● Conducts investigations to
collect valid and reliable
primary and secondary data
and
information
● 1.2 Conduct a practical
investigation to gather data to
facilitate the analysis of
instantaneous and average
velocity through
- Quantitative, first-hand
measurements
- Graphical representation and
interpretation of data
Aim: How does a ticker tape
timer record the motion of an
object?
Hypothesis: The ticker
tape time will accurately
represent the motion of
electricity through
the hammer which will dot the
paper to illustrate the motion
of the electrons back and forth
Ticker tape
experiment
Outcomes:
● Designs and evaluates
investigative data in order to
obtain primary and secondary
data
and information
● Conducts investigations to
collect valid and reliable
primary and secondary data
and
information
● 1.2 Conduct a practical
investigation to gather data to
facilitate the analysis of
instantaneous and average
velocity through
- Quantitative, first-hand
measurements
- Graphical representation and
interpretation of data
Aim: How does a ticker tape
timer record the motion of an
object?
Hypothesis: The ticker
tape time will accurately
represent the motion of
electricity through
the hammer which will dot the
paper to illustrate the motion
of the electrons back and forth
Ticker tape
experiment
Outcomes:
● Designs and evaluates
investigative data in order to
obtain primary and secondary
data
and information
● Conducts investigations to
collect valid and reliable
primary and secondary data
and
information
● 1.2 Conduct a practical
investigation to gather data to
facilitate the analysis of
instantaneous and average
velocity through
- Quantitative, first-hand
measurements
- Graphical representation and
interpretation of data
Aim: How does a ticker tape
timer record the motion of an
object?
Hypothesis: The ticker
tape time will accurately
represent the motion of
electricity through
the hammer which will dot the
paper to illustrate the motion
of the electrons back and forth
Ticker tape
experiment
Outcomes:
● Designs and evaluates
investigative data in order to
obtain primary and secondary
data
and information
● Conducts investigations to
collect valid and reliable
primary and secondary data
and
information
● 1.2 Conduct a practical
investigation to gather data to
facilitate the analysis of
instantaneous and average
velocity through
- Quantitative, first-hand
measurements
- Graphical representation and
interpretation of data
Aim: How does a ticker tape
timer record the motion of an
object?
Hypothesis: The ticker
tape time will accurately
represent the motion of
electricity through
the hammer which will dot the
paper to illustrate the motion
of the electrons back and forth
Ticker tape
experiment
Outcomes:
● Designs and evaluates
investigative data in order to
obtain primary and secondary
data
and information
● Conducts investigations to
collect valid and reliable
primary and secondary data
and
information
● 1.2 Conduct a practical
investigation to gather data to
facilitate the analysis of
instantaneous and average
velocity through
- Quantitative, first-hand
measurements
- Graphical representation and
interpretation of data
Aim: How does a ticker tape
timer record the motion of an
object?
Hypothesis: The ticker
tape time will accurately
represent the motion of
electricity through
the hammer which will dot the
paper to illustrate the motion
of the electrons back and forth
TICKER TAPE EXPERIMENT
Outcomes:
 Designs and evaluates investigative data in order to obtain
primary and secondary data and information
 Conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and
secondary data and information
 1.2 Conduct a practical investigation to gather data to facilitate
the analysis of instantaneous and average velocity through
 Quantitative, first-hand measurements
 Graphical representation and interpretation of data

Aim:
How does a ticker tape timer record the motion of an object?

Hypothesis:
The ticker tape time will accurately represent the motion of
electricity through the hammer which will dot the paper to illustrate
the motion of the electrons back and forth.

Risk Assessment:

Equipment List:
Kevin Lu 11PHY02
- Ticker tape timer
- 30-40cm of white tape
- 2 Leads
- Transformer
Kevin Lu 11PHY02
- Ticker tape timer
- 30-40cm of white tape
- 2 Leads
- Transforme
Kevin Lu 11PHY02
- Ticker tape timer
- 30-40cm of white tape
- 2 Leads
- Transform
Kevin Lu 11PHY02
- Ticker tape timer
- 30-40cm of white tape
- 2 Leads
- Transformer
Kevin Lu 11PHY02
- Ticker tape timer
- 30-40cm of white tape
- 2 Leads
- Transforme
Kevin Lu 11PHY02
- Ticker tape timer
- 30-40cm of white tape
- 2 Leads
- Transformer
- Ticker tape timer
- 30-40cm of white tape
- 2 Leads
- Transformer

INTRODUCTION
In physics, any increase or decrease in velocity is referred to as
acceleration or deceleration. The rate of acceleration is measured in
m/s² or km/m/s respectively. The average acceleration of an object
can be derived from the formula:
 PURPOSE
To identify the correlation between the movement of the cart and
the appearance of the velocity time-graph and use that correlation
to calculate the displacement and acceleration of the cart.

MATERIALS
 Ramp
 Masking tape
 Recording
tape
 Ruler
 Graph paper
 Loaded cart
 Power supply
 Ticker timer

 Controlled Variable: the ramp, the timer, the cart releaser, the
testing environment, length of ticker tape, the angle of the ramp
 Independent: The average velocity of the cart per interval
 Dependent: The total displacement of the cart

METHOD
1. A table was drawn to record time, displacement, and average
velocity.
2. The ramp, recording timer, and cart were set up in the test
environment.
3. A length of recording tape was attached to the cart and
threaded through the ticker timer.
4. The timer was started and the cart was released down the ramp
so that the recording tape was pulled through the timer.
5. Steps 3 and 4 were repeated until each person in the group had
a tape of the motion.
6. The marking tape was analysed by marking the starting dot t=
0 and dividing the tape into equal time intervals. Each six dot
interval was .10s.
7. The displacements of each time interval were recorded in the
table.
8. The average velocity was calculated and recorded for each time
interval.
9. The graph of the velocity for the cart was plotted at the half-
time intervals.
10. The line of best fit was drawn through the points.
11. The average acceleration of the cart was calculated by
finding the slope of the
Velocity-time graph in m/s²

OBSERVATIONS
 CALCULATIONS:

Average Velocity per Interval:

Average Velocity Overall (Total Displacement):

Average Change in Velocity (Acceleration)

 ERROR ANALYSIS
After performing the experiment four times there are several
conclusions that can be drawn from it; the first of which being errors.

Equipment Error: During the

experiment, there were
difficulties that sometimes
occurred with the ticker tape
timer. Though the machine
worked quite effectively the
problem was encountered with
the purple carbon disc that
created imprints on the ticker
tape paper.
During the experiment on two
occasions, the disc would either not imprint anything on the ticker
tape paper or come off during that experiment. This resulted in trials
having to be repeated and the waste of lab materials to retrieve
accurate data.
Inherent Error: There’s always the
potential for inherent errors during
an experiment and this one is not an
exception. The cart is released and
the operation of the ticker tape
timer was done by two different
group members.
This created the possibility for the
cart to be released slightly before or
after the ticker tape timer was
activated. Though it may not seem
drastic because the time
measurements being recorded are
so minuscule such a synchronization
problem can significantly change in
average velocities per interval.
This created the possibility for the cart to be released slightly before
or after the ticker tape timer was activated. Though it may not seem
drastic because the time measurements being recorded are so
minuscule such a synchronization problem can significantly change
in average velocities per interval.

IMPROVEMENTS
There are two major improvements that can be proposed to make
the data collected from this experiment more precise and accurate.
The first improvement would be the creation of a tool to allow one
person to operate both the ticker tape timer and the release of the
car.
By creating a release button that would operate both devices it
would synchronize them and ensure the data was precise. Also
placing a groove on the board which the car could run along on the
ramp would allow the car to have a constant start and end track on
the board. This would eliminate the variation of places the car could
start and finish from and the chance of the car falling off the board
near the end of its run.

HOW TO WRITE HYPOTHESIS FOR LAB

REPORT

Conclusion/ Discussion
1. The average velocity for an interval can be found by finding the
slope of that interval. Using the tangent method or mid-point
method to find the rise/run will give you the average velocity of
the cart at that interval.
2. For constant acceleration, the average velocity for the interval
will be equal to the instantaneous velocity at the half-time of
the interval.
3. The average velocity for an interval on a velocity-time graph
must be plotted on one specific point on the line to represent
instantaneous velocity.
4. If the acceleration is constant, then the velocity-time graph will
be a linear line. However, if the acceleration deviates positively
then the velocity-time graph will gain a curved or parabolic
shape.
5. Based on the data from the velocity-time graph, the cart is
experiencing non-uniform motion.
6. The average acceleration of the cart is 2.4m/s² or 240cm/s².
7. The area underneath each interval was relatively the same as
the displacement of the cart at that interval. It should however
be exactly the same as the displacement of the cart at the
interval. The values may be different simply due to rounding
during the calculations.

a) To create a velocity-time graph from a position–time graph

divide the displacement of each interval by the time at of each
interval; the results will be the average velocity of each interval.
Then plot that average velocity as the dependent variable on a
velocity-time graph; plot time as the independent variable.
b) To create a position-time graph from a velocity-time graph find
the average velocity of each interval. (This can be done by
finding the slope of each interval) Then multiply each average
velocity by its time interval to get the displacement. Then plot
each displacement value in accordance with its time interval on
a position-time graph.
c) To create an acceleration- time graph from a velocity-time
graph find the slope of each interval. Once the average
acceleration (slope) of each interval is calculated, plot each
average acceleration value with its appropriate time interval.
d) To create a velocity-time graph from an acceleration- time
graph finds the average acceleration of each time interval. Then
multiply the average acceleration with the time interval to get
 the average velocity and plot it with its corresponding time
interval.

8. The ticker tape cart experience uniform acceleration and had a

constant magnitude 2.4m/s² [fwd] down the ramp.

In conclusion, the velocity-time graph of the cart down the ramp had
a relative, if not completely linear shape. To determine the
displacement of the cart, find the area underneath the line of the
velocity-time graph and to find the acceleration of the cart, find the
slope of the line of the velocity-time graph. The data collected from
this experiment was quite accurate and testing was performed quite
smoothly, however as stated early, there is always room for
improvement.

PHYSICS PRACTICAL-PART C
Validity

 Conduct multiple trials to establish a reliable average.

 Use accurate measurement tools for distance and time.
 Record observations during the experiment.
 Keep other variables constant during the experiment. (E.g.
initial velocity)

Reliability
 Ensure a stable setup.
 Ensure that the ticker rape is placed on a smooth and flat
surface
 Conduct the experiment in a controlled environment with
minimal air currents to avoid disturbances to the tape.
 Set up the experiment with precision, ensuring that the tape
passes through the ticker timer uniformly and without
obstructions.

Source of Errors
 Frictional forces.
 Vibrations and disturbances.
 Irregular ticker rape.
 Timing inconsistencies.
 Tape Misalignment.

Ways to Reduce Friction

 Ensure that all surfaces the licker tape comes into contact with
are smooth. Smooth materials reduce friction compared to
rough/uneven

 Apply a small amount of lubricant (silicone spray/graphite

powder) to the moving parts of the Ticker timer. This can help
reduce friction and ensure smoother motion.

 Adjust the tension in the Ticker tape. Excessive tension can

cause increased friction, so find the right balance for smooth
tape movement.

 Use high-quality licker tape with uniform perforations.

Irregularities in the tape can increase friction and lead to
inaccuracies