Review
• Sampling and Fourier Transform of sampled
functions
- Sampling theorem, aliasing, reconstruction
from sampled data
• Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) of one
variable
• 2-D DFT and its Inverse
• Properties of 2-D DFT
Sampling
FT of Impulse Train
• Intermediate result
− The Fourier transform of the impulse train.
+
1 +
n
n =−
(t − nT )
T
−
n =− T
• It is also an impulse train in the frequency
domain.
• Impulses are equally spaced every 1/ΔΤ.
Fourier Transform of Sampled Function
FT of an impulse
train with period ∆T
is also an impulse
train, whose period
is 1/ ∆T
Sampling Theorem
Extraction of F(µ)
Aliasing
Fourier Transform of Sampled Signal
• The Fourier transform of a sampled band-limited (discrete)
Images taken from Gonzalez & Woods, Digital Image Processing (2002)
signal is a continuous periodic function of the frequency ,
extending from -∞ to + ∞
1 + n
F () = T
F
T n =−
−
• In practice, we work with a finite number of samples
• For a N-length discrete signal, taking N samples of its
Fourier transform at frequencies :
k
k = , k = 0,1,.., N − 1
N T
provides the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of the
signal.
Discrete Fourier Transform
• DFT pair of signal f [n] of length N.
N −1 2 nk
−j
F [k ] = f [n ]e N
, 0 k N −1
n =0
2 nk
1 N −1 j
f [ n] =
N
F[k ]e
n =0
N
, 0 n N −1
2D Impulse Train
The 2D impulse train is also separable:
+ +
SX Y ( x, y) = S X ( x) SY ( y ) = ( x − nX , y − n Y )
n =− m =−
2-D Fourier Transform
• The Fourier transform of a continuous 2D
signal f (x,y).
+ +
F ( , ) =
− −
f ( x, y) e− j 2 ( x +vy ) dydx
+ +
f ( x, y ) =
− −
F ( , )e j 2 ( x +vy ) d d
Example- 2-D Function FT
Analogous 1-D function FT
2D continuous signals (cont.)
• 2D sampling is accomplished by
+ +
SX Y ( x, y ) = (x − nX , y − nY )
n =− m =−
• The FT of the sampled 2D signal consists of
repetitions of the spectrum of the 1D
continuous signal.
1 1 +
m n
F ( , ) =
X Y
n =−
F−
X
, −
Y
2D Sampling Theorem
• The Nyquist theorem involves both the
horizontal and vertical frequencies.
1 1
2 max , 2vmax
X Y
Over-sampled Under-sampled
Aliasing in Images
• A continuous function f(x, y) of two continuous
variables, can be band-limited in general only if it
extends infinity in both coordinates.
• Since we cannot sample a function infinitely---Aliasing
is always present in the digital images
Spatial Aliasing – due to under sampling
Temporal Aliasing- related to time intervals between
images in a sequence of images
Ex- “wagon wheel” effect , in which wheels with spokes in a
sequence of images appear to be rotating backward.
Reason- Frame rate is too slow as compared to speed of wheel
rotation in the image sequence
Example-aliasing
Assume a noiseless
imaging system, which
takes fixed no. of
sample 96 x 96 pixels
What happens when the
imaging system is asked
to digitize checkerboard
patterns that have more
than 96 x 96 squares ?
- Size of checkerboard
square is less than one
pixel
Image (d) indicates that
the aliasing can create
results that may be
misleading.
Example-2 (Aliasing)
Aliasing - Moiré Patterns
• Effect of sampling a scene with periodic or
nearly periodic components (e.g. overlapping
grids, TV raster lines and stripped materials).
• In image processing the problem arises when
scanning media prints (e.g. magazines,
newspapers).
• The problem is more general than sampling
artifacts.
Aliasing - Moiré Patterns (cont.)
• Superimposed grid drawings (not digitized) produce
the effect of new frequencies not existing in the
original components.
Aliasing - Moiré Patterns (cont.)
• In printing industry the problem comes
when scanning photographs from the
superposition of:
• The sampling lattice (usually horizontal and
vertical).
• Dot patterns on the newspaper image.
DFT Definitions
Dr.Basant Kumar
Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad 25
Table.2 ( contd.)
Dr.Basant Kumar
Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad
Summary of DFT Pairs
Summary of DFT Pairs
2-D DFT Periodicity
- Transform data in the
interval 0 to M-1
consists of two back-
to-back half periods
meeting at point M/2
- For display and
filtering purpose, it is
more convenient to
have this interval a
complete period of the
transform
Image Spectrum
Dr.Basant Kumar
Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad 30
Image Spectrum
Dr.Basant Kumar
Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad 31
