CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISM

BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION: It is the grouping of living organisms based on their common physical
characteristics and differences in order to bring systematic order and make identification easier and consistent.
TAXONOMY: It is a branch of biology that specializes in the grouping/ classification of living organism.
There is a wide range of living organisms that have been discovered and described. However, many are yet to be
discovered and described. The first attempt to classify living organisms was by a Greek philosopher Aristotle
(384-322 BC). The present method of classifying and naming living organisms is based on the work of Swedish
naturalist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778).
The Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus (1707 - 1778) is regarded as the founder of the present system of
taxonomy as developed a system known as Linnean taxonomy for categorizing living things and also a system
called binomial nomenclature for naming living things.

METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION
There are three major methods,
1. NATURAL CLASSIFICATION
2. ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION
3. PHYLOGENETIC CLASSIFICATION

NATURAL CLASSIFICATION
The natural system of classification is a biological classification based upon morphological and anatomical
relationships.

ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION
Artificial system of classification was based on morphological characters such as habit, habitat, colour, number
and shape of leaves.

PHYLOGENETIC CLASSIFICATION
Phylogenetic system of classification is a type of classification that names groups of organisms according to their
evolutionary history.

IMPORTANCE OF CLASSIFICATION
 It helps to group organisms into specific groups
 It puts organisms into systematic order for easy identification
 It helps to trace the geographical distribution of organisms
 It shows evolutionary trends in different groups
 It allows biologists to understand the similarities and differences between organisms
 It helps to establish the relationship between organisms of different taxa.
 It makes the study of a wide variety of organisms easy.
 It helps to trace the ancestry of present-day organisms
 It helps in the correct identification of various organisms
 It allows for easy communication among scientists
 It gives organisms common names which are used worldwide.
Historical background of classification
Aristotle (384 -322 BC)
 He was a Greek philosopher and scientist
 He was the first to classify organisms. He classified organisms into plants and animals
 In his classification, organisms were classified based on their habitat, mode of movement and
body parts
 He classified animals into running animals, flying animals and swimming animals.
 He also classified animals into those having red blood cells and those who do not have red blood cells.
 He classified plants into herbs, shrubs and trees.
 His system of classification was used for about two thousand years.

Carolus Linnaeus (1707 – 1778)

 He was a Swedish botanist
 He developed a system of classifying organisms known as binomial nomenclature.
 Organisms were classified under this system based on their common external features.
 He developed the hierarchy of classification which consists of seven ranks. These are
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
 Each rank is referred to as a taxon (plural: taxa).
 Each organism was given a distinct two - part name (Genus name and species name). these are
Latin names.

TAXONOMIC RANK (TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY)

Living things are grouped together into taxa (singular; taxon) and these groups are given a taxonomic rank. A
taxon is a group or organisms that are classified as a unit. Groups of a given rank can be aggregated (combine
into a single group) to form a super-group of higher rank thus creating taxonomic hierarchy. The principal
ranks in modern use are: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species
Kingdom
In biology, Kingdom is a taxonomic rank that is composed of smaller groups called Phyla (or divisions, in
plants). Aristotle was the first to classify living things and be grouped all living things into two kingdoms (plant
and animal kingdoms).
In 1866, Ernst Haeckel proposed a third kingdom of living things called the kingdom Protista (neutral
organisms) which were neither animal nor plant.
In 1938, Herbert F. Copeland proposed a four-kingdom classification elevating the protest classes of bacteria
(Monera) and blue-green algae (psycho chromacea) to phyla in the new kingdom Monera
Robert Whittaker recognized an additional kingdom for the fungi. The resulting five kingdom system proposed
in 1969 by Whittaker has become a popular standard and with some improvement is still used in works and it
forms the basis for new multi kingdom systems. In 1998, Cavalier Smith published a six-kingdom model which
has been revised in subsequent papers.
Living things are placed into certain kingdom based on how they obtain their food, the types of cells that make
up their bodies and the number of cells they contain. There are six (6) kingdoms of living things currently
recognized which include Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Plantae, Animalia, Fungi and Protista

Phylum
Phylum is a taxonomic ranking that comers third in the hierarchy of classification after domain and
kingdom. Living things are classified into phylum largely on the basis of body plan. Traditionally, in
botany, the term division has been used instead of phylum. There are approximately 36 – 40 phyla making
up the animal kingdom, about 14 phyla making up the plant kingdom and the fungus kingdom contains
about 8 phyla. The bacteria including the Archaea are grouped into roughly 34 phyla.

Class
In biological classification of living things, a class is a major taxonomic rank below the phylum (or division)
and above the order. Characteristics such as appearance, reproduction, mobility and functionality are just a few
ways in which living things are grouped together in class. For example, class Mammalia belongs to phylum
Chordata. Animals making the class Mammalia have many shared structures, functions and reproduction. For
example, mammals have 8 main characteristics that them apart from all other vertebrates which include hair or
fur, mammary gland, single-boned lower jaw, diphyodonty (one-time tooth replacement), three middle ear
bones, warm blooded metabolisms (endotherm), diaphragm and four chambered heart. Class Mammalia is
comprised of various orders such as Chiroptera (bats), primates (apes), carnivora (dogs, cats, jaguar, bears,
etc.), Cetacean (whale), Proboscidea (elephant) and many more.

Family
Family is one of the eight major hierarchical taxonomic ranks in Linnean taxonomy. It is classified between
order and genus. A family may be divided into sub-families which are intermediate ranks of family and genus.
The official family names are often Latin in origin. The naming of families is codified by various international
bodies using the following suffixes. In fungal, algal and botanical nomenclature, the family names of plants,
fungi and algae end with the suffix “aceae” with the exception of a small number of historic bets widely used
names including composite a Gramineae.
In zoological nomenclature, the family names of animals end with the suffix “idae”

Genus
A genus is a taxonomic category ranking used in biological classification that is below family and above
species. Species showing similar characteristics make a genus or biologically speaking, a genus is defined as a
taxonomic rank made of species with common qualities (attributes). It includes group(s) of species that are
structurally similar or phylogenetically related. The term genus was borrowed from Latin. It means “birth”
“descent” “origin” “soft” or “type”. The plural form is genera. Thus, the meaning of genera relates to more than
one genus as most taxonomic families are made of several genera.
Examples: Panthera Leo (lion) and Panthera onca (jaguar) are two species within the genus Panthera

Species
A species of organisms is regarded as the most basic unit of a category in the biological system or classification
to considered into a species rank, the group of organisms must have at least two of its members capable of
reproducing fertile offspring (especially through sexual reproduction). Organisms from different species,
 although they belong under the same genus, generally cannot interbreed as their offspring would likely be
infertile. The species of a particular group of organisms would therefore, belong to those that can reproduce and
produce fertile offspring, of the same kind. Thus, they would have the same set of DNAs, similar physical and
morphological attributes and demonstrate common behavior. Species lies below the genus rank. The species
concept was introduced by John Ray.

Binomial System of Nomenclature

 Biologist used a standard system to name living organisms different from the common names such as cow,
goat etc. that we are familiar with. In the 18th century, Swedish naturalist, Carolus Linnaeus, developed the
modern scientific system of giving two names to living things.
 The first name is the Genus or Generic name; it starts with a capital letter and underlined when written or
printed in italics while the second name is the Species or Specific name, it is written last, underlined when
written separately, and starts with a small letter. The scientific name for man is Homo sapiens or written in
this form Homo sapiens. Other examples are

Organism Scientific Name

Maize Zea mays
African Elephant Loxodonta africana
Red neck Lizard Agama agama
Housefly Musca domestica
Elephant grass Pennisetum purpureum

Viruses
Viruses do not fit into any of the kingdoms of biological classification. They exist as a separate group. They are
obligate parasites and cannot exist on their own. They can be classified as living when found in a living host
where they perform life activities. Outside the host, they become lifeless just like any particle that is non-living.
They depend on plant cells, animal cells or bacteria cells for survival, growth and multiplication
They are organisms on the borderline between living and non-living organisms.
Viruses were first discovered near the end of the 19th century by Adolf Mayer, a German scientist, when some
tobacco plants got the Tobacco mosaic disease. Even though he could not discover that the organisms causing
the stunted growth and yellow leaves in the plant were viruses, he still got to know that the disease was caused
by certain micro- organisms. He further discovered that the disease was spread when liquid (sap) from the
infected leaves got into contact with the healthy ones.
About a decade later, scientists like Dmitri Ivanovsky and Martinus Beijerinck also conducted similar
experiments concerning viruses.
In 1940, this group of disease-causing organisms were given the name “virus” which is Latin for poison.
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES
Generally, the bacteria are known to be about 20nm in diameter. They are known to exist in various forms and
shapes such as helical shape, spherical shape, polyhedral shape and rod shape.
They have no cytoplasm and therefore are described as “acellular”. Their body is composed of an outer coat
called capsid (A structure which is made up of protein) and an inner core made up of a strand of nucleic acid
coiled up inside it. It should be noted that their capsid “wall” comprises of certain protein sub units called
capsomere. The capsid comprises of a large number of these capsomeres.
They also possess genomes which may consist of double stranded DNA, single stranded DNA, double
stranded RNA or a single stranded RNA.
TYPES OF VIRUSES
Viruses can also be classified into two groups depending on the type of nucleic acid contained in their “cell”. That
is:
 DNA viruses
 RNA viruses
Some viruses possess accessory structures that they use to affect their host. An example is the membranous
envelope that surround the capsid of the influenza virus which is used for protection against the host’s
defenses.
Viral envelopes are derived from membranes of host cells and contain phospholipids and membrane proteins from
the host cell. It can also be made up of glycoproteins of viral origin. Some viruses can also carry enzymes within
their capsid. These enzymes are mainly used in reproduction which usually takes place within a host cell.
Bacteriophage (Phages): They have the most complex capsids. Their capsids consist of a polyhedral head and
a tail piece made of protein with fibres used in attacking bacteria.
REPRODUCTION
A virus can only reproduce in other living cells. First it attaches itself to the surface of the cell it wants to attack
with its receptors. It should be noted that viruses are “host-specific” and “cell specific”. After the attachment, they
inject a strand of their nucleic acid into the cell. The strand penetrates the nucleus and takes over its activities after
which there is replication of the viral nucleic acid to produce many strands.
New virus is formed round each strand of nucleic acid using materials from the host cell. The cell eventually bursts
open releasing new viruses.
For certain types of viruses, the whole process can take only 30 minutes to occur.

Economic importance of viruses

 They cause variety of infectious diseases in man and animals

 Their diseases are very difficult to treat because antibodies can’t be used
 They cause mosaic disease of tobacco and cassava that result in yellowing and blistering of the leaves and stem.

KINGDOM PROKARYOTAE (MONERA)

Characteristics

General characteristics of the kingdom Monera are as follows:

 DNA is in double stranded form, suspended in the cytoplasm of the organism, referred as nucleoid.
 cells do not have nuclear membrane and membrane bound organelles like mitochondria.
 They are unicellular and Microscopic.
 Cell wall made of murein. (Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a polymer consisting of sugars and
amino acids that forms a mesh-like layer outside the plasma membrane of most bacteria, forming the cell
wall.)

Examples: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria (photosynthesising bacteria), Mycoplasma etc.

Habitat - Monerans are found everywhere in hot springs, under ice, in deep ocean floor, in deserts and on or
inside the body of plants and animals.
Nutrition - autotrophs - can prepare their own food, heterotrophs - depend on others for food, saprophytes - feed
on dead and decaying matter,
Movement – by means of flagella.
Reproduction is mostly asexual, sexual reproduction is also seen. Asexual reproduction is by binary fission,
sexual reproduction is by conjugation, transformation and transduction.

Classification of Kingdom Monera

Kingdom Monera has been classified into two groups - Archaebacteria and Eubacteria.
Archaebacteria are microbes that live in extreme and harsh conditions, they are known as extremophiles. These
bacteria lack cell wall, their cell membrane is made up of different lipids, and their ribosomes are similar to that
of eukaryotes.
Archaebacteria are of three major groups of bacteria based on their habitat i.e., thermophiles, halophiles and
methanogens.

Some extremophiles live in boiling water. These are known as 'thermophiles'. E.g Thermotoga maritima
Some extremophiles live in extremely salty water, the salt loving bacteria are known as 'halophiles'. E.g E.
halobacterium or Halobium
Some bacteria are present in the guts of ruminants and are responsible for production of methane gas from their
dung. These bacteria are known as 'methanogens'. E.g Methanosarcina sp

Thermophilic microbes-Microbes that require extreme heat or higher temperatures

Halophilic microbes- Microbes that require high salt concentration
Methanogenic microbes-Microbes that are strict anaerobes / Obtain energy by converting CO2, H2, and other
compounds into methane
Eubacteria are true bacteria. The characteristic feature is the presence of rigid cell wall and if present a motile
flagellum that aids in locomotion. These organisms are characterized based on their nutrition and their shapes.
Classification based on Shape
Bacteria can be classified in five groups based on shape: namely:
 Spherical or round shaped bacteria are called cocci,
 Rod-shaped are called bacilli,
 Comma-shaped bacteria are called vibrio and
 Spiral shaped bacteria are called spirilla.
 Cork shaped bacteria are called Spirochaete

Classification Based on Mode of Nutrition

Based on the mode of nutrition bacteria are broadly classified into Autotrophic and Heterotrophic.

Autotrophic bacteria – They are Bacteria which prepare their own food. Example Cyanobacteria

Heterotrophic bacteria are those which are dependent on other organism either directly or indirectly for their
nutrition. They are most abundant and are important decomposers. Some are helpful in curdling milk, production
of antibiotics, in nitrogen fixation and some are pathogens.
Heterotrophic bacteria – these are Bacteria which are dependent on other organisms for their food.
Example: Escherichia coli
Heterotrophic bacteria can be parasitic and saprophytic. Parasitic bacteria are those which depend on the host for
nutrition and cause harm to the host. Saprophytic bacteria feed on dead and decaying matter.
Symbiotic - it is a type where the bacteria are in mutual relation with other organisms. Symbiosis is of two types
mutualism and commensalism. Mutualism is where the bacteria and the other organism are benefited due to the
relationship. Commensalism is a relationship where the bacteria is benefited while the other organism is not
affected by the relationship.

Differences between Bacteria and Cyanobacteria

Bacteria Cyanobacteria
They possess flagella They lack flagella
They are both autotrophic and They are autotrophic
heterotrophic
They may be aerobic and anaerobic They are always aerobic
They are unicellular They are either unicellular or
multicellular
Reserve food is glycogen Reserve food is Cyanophycean starch
Cell wall can be either one or two Cell wall is made up of four layers
layers
Cells are comparatively small Cells are comparatively large

Classification based on Gram's staining

Bacteria can also be classified into gram positive and gram-negative bacteria. This gram stain was
developed by Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram. It is actually a dye made up of an iodine
complex.
Gram negative bacteria are the ones that do not bind to gram stain and so does not retain the iodine
complex. Due to this, they do not maintain the purple colour which the gram-positive bacteria will show
when it comes into contact with the violet iodine complex.
These bacteria are gram negative because they have a cell wall comprised of three layers with a thin
peptidoglycan. Since it is the peptidoglycan that retains or traps the iodine complex, and these bacteria
have a very thin peptidoglycan layer, they do not retain the gram stain. They tend to show a red/pink
colour instead when observed under a microscope.
E.g., of G+ bacteria: Streptococci and Staphylococci
Gram positive bacteria on the other hand have a thick layer of peptidoglycan in its cell wall for trapping
and retaining the gram stain. They therefore give off a purple colour when the gram stain is applied to
them.
E.g., of G- bacteria: E. coli and Gonococcus
MOVEMENT IN BACTERIA
They are capable of directed movement or taxis (including chemotaxis). This is a form of movement that
is usually directed of “inspired” by external and environmental conditions such as acidity, light intensity
(amount of sunlight), basicity, etc.
Many of them also possess flagella for movement.

BLUE GREEN ALGAE (CYANOBACTERIA)

They lack chloroplast but contain chlorophyll which is located on the infoldings of plasma membrane
called chromotophores.
 They are found in marine water, fresh water, moist soil and bark of trees. \
Examples include; Anabaena, Nostoc

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE KINGDOM PROKARYOTAE

Organisms that belong here are either Saprophytic (beneficial) or Parasitic (disease-causing). Some positive and
negative economic importance are;
1) They break down dead plant and animal remains to make compost and recycle nutrients like nitrogen,
carbon and phosphorous making them available for plant use.
2) Some are in symbiotic relationship through which cellulose is broken down to produce vitamins like K
and B complex in man
3) They are involved in fermentation process in food production. E.g. cheese, yogurt, butter
4) They are used in the manufacture of products like antibiotics, enzymes, leather tanning etc.
5) They deteriorate and contaminate food substances causing losses.
6) They damage buried metal pipes by producing tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid
7) They cause diseases like tuberculosis, cholera, typhoid fever, whooping cough, etc.

KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA (PROTISTA)

The term Protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in the year 1886. This kingdom forms a link between other
kingdoms of plants, animals and fungi. Protists represent an important step in early evolution. Members of
Protista are primarily aquatic in nature.

Protoctists include three major groups:

Algae (Photosynthetic plant-like protists)
Protozoa (Act as animals)
Slime moulds acts as fungus)

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Grow well in areas where there is moisture.
 Are eukaryotic.
 Some are heterotrophs whilst others are autotrophs with the presence of chlorophyll.
 Some are shapeless bags and some exist in the form of shells.
 Some are free-living and others are also parasitic.
 Some produce spores whilst others do not.
 Most are unicellular organisms with very few of them being multicellular.
 Some float in water (planktonic)
 Some are also motile (These ones may possess flagellum, cilia or form pseudopods [false feet which are
temporary extensions of the cytoplasm])
PHYLA OF THE KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA
1. Phylum Rhizopoda (rhizopods)
2. Phylum Zoomastigina (flagellates)
3. Phylum Apicomplexa (sporozoans)
4. Phylum Ciliophora (ciliates)
5. Phylum Oomycota (oomycetes/slime mould)
6. Phylum Euglenophyta (euglenoid flagellate)
7. Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae)
8. Phylum Rhodophyta (red algae)
9. Phylum Phaeophyta (brown algae)

Phylum Euglenophyta (Euglenoid flagellates)

 They have flagella that makes them motile or for locomotion
 The outer part of the cell consists of a firm but flexible layer called a pellicle, or periplast, which cannot
properly be considered a cell wall.
 Some euglenoids contain chloroplasts that contain the photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll a and b, as in
the phylum Chlorophyta;
 Others are heterotrophic (non-photosynthetic) and can ingest or absorb their food.
 Food is stored as a polysaccharide in paramylum.
 Habitat: Freshwater
 Reproduction is asexual and occurs by longitudinal cell division.

E.g. Euglena viridis

Phylum Rhizopoda / Sarcodina (rhizopods)

 They feed heterotrophically by phagocytosis
 They lack permanent locomotive organelles like cilia or flagellae
 They have no pellicle
 They move and catch prey with cellular extensions called pseudopods
 They reproduce asexually by binary fission
Examples Amoeba, Polystomella, Entamoeba
 Phylum Ciliophora (ciliates)
 They posses cilia for locomotion and creating a feeding current
 They have multilayered pellicle
 They feed heterotrophically
 They have two types of nuclei, that is meganucleus (bigger or larger nucleus) and micronucleus (smaller
nucleus) which is mainly used for reproduction
 They reproduce both sexually and asexually. Sexual reproduction is by means of conjugation and asexual
by transverse binary fission.
Examples: Paramecium, Stentor, Vorticella, Suctorian and Stylonichia.

Phylum Zoomastigina
 Posses one or several flagella for locomotion
 most live symbiotically as mutualists, commensals, or parasites
 Have an outer pellicle
 They feed heterotrophically either by absorption or phagocytosis
 They lack chlorophyll
 They reproduce asexually by binary fission and sexually
E.g. Trypanosoma gambiense (which causes African sleeping sickness, the vector is called the Tsetsefly
[Glossina]. Symptoms include lethargy, coma), Trichonympha

Phylum Apicomplexa / Sporozoa (Sporozoans)

 Motility is absent in most cells because they lack locomotory structures except male gamete
 They are all parasites, living in the cells or body fluids of animals
 Sporozoans reproduce by means of spores by producing special spore like cells called sporozoite
  Their life cycle is complex, with well developed asexual and sexual stages
 They are parasites of animals
 They feed heterotrophically

Example: Plasmodium

Phylum Oomycota [Oomycetes] (water molds and parasitic fungi-like protists)

 They have vegetative hyphae which are non-septate (no cross walls)
 They have biflagellated spores called zoospores for asexual reproduction
 They posses sexual reproductive structures called the oogonium and the antheridium
 They are heterotrophic, decomposers and parasites
 Their zygote is called oospore
 They have Cellulose cell walls
Example: Saprolegnia, phytophthora, which causes blight of potato and rotting of cocoa pods.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OOMYCOTA AND FUNGI

1. Oomycetes have cellulose cell wall, fungi on the other hand have cell wall made of chitin.
2. Asexual phase in the water mold produces spores with flagella where as true fungi produces spores
lacking flagella.

Phylum Phaeophyta (Brown algae commonly called the seaweed)

 They have fucoxanthin as the dominant photosynthetic pigment, chlorophyll a is also present
 They are multicellular
 They usually have a stalk and a holdfast for clinging to rocks, stipe, an attachment organ, Lamina (Blade)
and air bladder
 They have chlorophyll which is masked by a brown pigment hence they appear brown
 They have flagellated reproductive cells
 They have well defined alternation of diploid and haploid generations (sporophyte is diploid and the
dominant stage)
 They can exist as filamentous as well as flattened forms.
 They reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation, Propagules or propagulum (Plural: propagulums or
propagula refers to a part of a plant or fungus, e.g. a bud or spore, that becomes detached from the rest
and forms a new organism) or zoospores (zoospores refer to a spore of some algae and fungi that are
capable of independent movement)
 They are mostly marine with few existing in freshwater forms.
Examples Laminaria, Fucus (Kelps), Sargassum.
Phylum Rhodophyta (Red algae)
 They are mostly marine
 They have plastids containing red pigments which mask the chlorophyll hence they are red in colour
 They are multicellular and photosynthetic
 They have no flagellated cells
 Although they have chlorophyll a, the dominant photosynthetic pigment is the red pigment called
Phycoerythrin which captures light even at great ocean depths.

NOTE: The red algae are characterized by reddish phycobilin pigments—Phycoerythrin and Phycocyanin—
that mask the color of the chlorophylls.
Examples Porphyra tenera, Palmaria, polysiphonia

Phylum Chlorophyta (Green Algae)

 They are mostly freshwater with few being marine
 They have no roots, stems or leaves and no vascular tissues
 They have cell wall made of cellulose and pectin
 They possess chlorophyll as their main photosynthetic pigment which gives them their grass green colour
 They are mostly unicellular and filamentous
 Their food reserve is starch which is stored in pyrenoids
 They reproduce both sexually and asexually.

Examples: Ulva, Volvox, Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Scenedesmus etc.

NOTE: The members in this phylum, Chlorophyta (green algae), contain chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids
like higher plants and so they are photosynthetic. This phylum also comprises of the following groupings
 Unicellular and non motile forms e.g. Chlorella and Scenedesmus
 Flagellated forms e.g. Chlamydomonas
 Unicellular motile forms e.g. Chlamydomonas
 Filamentous forms e.g. Spirogyra
  Thalloid forms e.g. Ulva.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA

1) The form part of the plankton to provide food for aquatic organisms e.g. fish
2) They die and become fossilized into chalk, limestone and oil deposits in the seabed
3) They contaminate food and drinking water
4) They cause diseases such as malaria, amoebic dysentery, sleeping sickness, etc.
5) The photosynthetic ones reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration through photosynthesis thereby
preventing greenhouse effect.
6) They are eaten in some part of the world e.g Brown Algae (Sea weed)
7) They are used as fertilizers on coastal areas
8) The provide oxygen for respiration and the aerobic bacteria, which breaks down sewage.
9) Brown algae produce gels used in thickening many products including ice cream, polish, paint, medicine.

KINGDOM FUNGI
General characteristics of kingdom Fungi
1) They are multicellular
2) They are eukaryotic, i.e. possess nuclear membrane and membrane bound organelles
3) They do not possess chlorophyll and hence do not photosynthesized
4) They are heterotrophic feeders, either parasitic or saprophytic
5) They possess cell wall made of chitin
6) The body consist of mycelia and they do not possess true roots, stem or leaves
7) They reproduced both sexual and asexual

There are 3 main phyla/divisions

1. Phylum Zygomycota
2. Phylum Ascomycota
3. Phylum Basidiomycota

Phylum Zygomycota
 They have non- septate hyphae
 Asexual reproduction is by sporangiophores
 Sexual reproduction is by the formation of zygospore
Example are Rhizopus, Pilobolus.
Phylum Ascomycota
 They have septate hyphae
 They reproduce asexually by conidiophores formation
 They reproduce sexually by dikaryotic hyphae with the formation of ascospores in asci
 Most produce poisonous mycelium and toxins
Examples are Neurospora, Saccharomyces (yeast), and powdery mildew, Penicillium etc.

Phylum Basidiomycota
 They have septate hyphae
 They reproduce asexually by conidiospore
 They reproduce sexually by long-lasting dikaryotic mycelium with formation of basidiospore on basilla
Examples are puffball, mushroom, rust, smut, bracket fungi, etc.
This fourth phylum is for Your information. (It is not mentioned in the syllabus)
Phylum Deuteromycota (imperfect fungi)
 They have septate hyphae
 They reproduce asexually by conidiospores
 Sexual reproduction is not known
Examples are Ringworm, Candida, athlete’s foot, etc.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF KINGDOM FUNGI
1) They decompose sewage and organic materials in and out on the soil
2) Some antibiotics are produced from them. Example is penicillin
3) Used in the production of industrial and domestic alcohol
4) They are used in food production. Example is lemonade, bread etc.
5) They cause diseases in man. Examples are rust, smut, fruit rot, stem rot, etc
6) They decompose and deteriorate food and other materials
 KINGDOM PLANTAE
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 They are Eukaryotes;
 Plants are multicellular;
 They are photosynthetic;
 They are sessile (non-motile);
 Their cell walls contain cellulose.

Divisions under kingdom plantae

 Division Bryophyta (Bryophytes)
 Division Lycopodophyta (club mosses)
 Division Filicinophyta (Ferns)
 Division Cycadophyta (cycads)
 Division Coniferophyta (conifers)
 Division Angiospermophyta (Angiosperms/ flowering plants)
Kingdom Plantae Classification
The Kingdom Plantae contains about billion types of plants species and it was very difficult to identify different
types of species. Many biologists contributed in classifying different plants species into their separate kingdom.
There are several ways of classifying plants. The classification can be based on morphological, habitat etc.
Based o n habitat, we have two types of plants, namely:
 Aquatic plants and
 Land plants.

Aquatic plants: These are normally algae. They include the

 Red algae
 Brown algae
 Green algae
Land plants: These plants can further be divided into two based presence or absence of vascular tissue. They
are:
 Non vascular plants and
 Vascular plants.
Non vascular plants: These are plants without vascular tissues (without xylem and phloem). They include
the Bryophytes such as
 Mosses
 Liverwort.
Vascular plants: These are plants that possess vascular tissues (xylem and phloem). These plants can further be
divided into two, namely:
 Pteridophyta or Pteridophytes (these are the spore producing plants or plants that reproduce by means
of spore formation). They include:
 Ferns
 Club Mosses
 Spermatophyta or Spermatophytes: These are plants that reproduce by seed formation. They are
further divided into two groups, they are:
 Gymnosperms: They are plants with naked seeds (seeds that are not enclosed in an ovary or fruits).
They include:
 Conifers
  Cycads and
 Ginkgos
 Angiosperms: They are plants that produce flowers and seeds enclosed in ovary. These are further
divided into two, they are:
 Monocotyledons and
 Dicotyledons

Division Bryophyta
 They are non-vascular land plants
 They have rhizoids which are for attachment to the substratum and absorption of nutrients
 They lack true roots, stems and leaves instead they possess root-like, leaf-like and stem-like structures.
 The reproduction process is carried in their spores. They are non-flowering plant and are found mainly
growing on the ground, on other plants and on rocks.
 They exhibit alternation of generation in which the gametophyte is the dominant generation.
 They are found in moist or damp areas (they require water for fertilization)
 The male gamete is bi- flagellated.

Reasons why Bryophytes are confined to damp habitats

 Sexual reproduction of bryophytes requires water /moisture, through which the male gametes swims
to the female gamete.
 They do not have true roots and stem to absorb minerals and water, and therefore, absorb water all
over their body surface by simple diffusion and osmosis.
 The plant surface lacks a cuticle, which enables it to absorb water through its surface,
 They are non vascular, hence they have direct contact with water.

Examples: Mosses, Liverworts and Hornworts.

Classes of Bryophytes are: Musci (Mosses), Hepatica (liverworts) and Anthocerotae (Hornworts).

Class Musci (Mosses)

Characteristics of mosses
 They have a leafy gametophyte with a stem
 They possess a multicellular rhizoids
 The capsule is green when young
 They have simple stems, leaves and they do not produce flowers, fruits and seeds.
 They undergo alternation of generation in which the gametophyte is dominant
 They reproduce through spores
 The leaves are in three ranks along the stem
Examples: Funaria, Brachymenium and Mnium.
 Class Hepaticae (Liverworts):
Characteristics of Liverworts
 They are nonvascular
 They Undergo alternation of generations with Sporophyte attached to Gametophyte
 Gametophytes are green & leafy and are the dominant generation
 Many have flattened body called thallus, but some have a leafy appearance
 They possess unicellular rhizoids
 Capsule is not green when young
 The spore capsule splits into four valves when they burst
 Leaves in three ranks along the stem
 Need abundant water for fertilization
 Reproduce by spores
NOTE: The name liverwort arose because the lobes of the thallus resemble the lobes of the liver.

Example: Marchantia (is a complex thalloid liverwort), Riccardia (a simple thalloid liverwort),
Lophoelea (is a leafy liverwort, common on rotting wood).

Differences between Liverworts and Mosses

Liverworts Mosses
Gametophyte is a flattened Gametophyte is a leafy-shoot and
structure varying from thalloid more differentiated than in
form to leafy shoot liverworts
Rhizoids are unicellular Rhizoids are multicellular
Leaf-like structures are in three Leaf-like structures are spirally
whorls along the stem arranged
Capsule of the sporophyte splits Capsule of the sporophyte does not
into four valves for dispersing the have an elaborate mechanism for
spores dispersal of seeds.

Division Lycopodophyta (Club moss)

 They have small leaves that are spirally arranged around the stem
 Their sporangia are at the upper surface or in the axils of the Sporophylls (fertile leaves)
 The sporangia bearing leaves are often grouped into strobili
or cones
 The sporophyte possesses vascular tissues (xylem and phloem)
 The sporophyte is differentiated into true leaves, stem and
roots.

Examples: Selaginella and Lycopodium.

Division Filicinophyta (ferns)
 They undergo alternation of generation in which the sporophyte is dominant
 The gametophyte is reduced to a small, simple prothallus
 They possess vascular tissues
 The leaves are relatively large and are called fronds
 Spores are produced in sporangia, which are usually in clusters called sori at the undersurface of fronds.
Examples: Dryopteris, Nephrolepis biserrata, Pityrogramma, Platycerium.

Division Coniferophyta (Conifers)

 They do not depend on water for fertilization

 They bear cones on which sporangia, spores and seeds develop from
 They produce no fruits because they have no ovary
 The sporophyte is the dominant generation (gametophyte is very reduced)
 They have leaves that are needle-shaped
 They have no flowers or fruits
 The seeds are not enclosed in an ovary. They lie on surface of specialised leaves called ovuliferous scales
in structures called cones.

Examples: Pines and Cedars

Division Cycadophyta (Cycads)

 They resemble palms superficially
 They have long, compound leaves like palms
 They have short unbranched stem
 They have cones, which are borne at the apex of trunk among the leaves
 They have no flowers and fruits

Examples: Cycads
Division Ginkgophyta (Ginkgos)
 They form large trees with characteristic small, fan-shaped leaves
 The sporophyte is the dominant generation (gametophyte is very reduced)
 They do not depend on water for fertilization
  They usually produce cones on which sporangia, spores and seed develop
 They bear no fruits because they have no ovary.

Examples: Ginkgos biloba.

Division Angiospermophyta/Angiospermatophyta (angiosperms)

Flowering plants can be defined as those plants, which can produce flowers, fruits and seeds. They are
completely different from nonflowering plants. They are also called angiosperms. Flowering plants are the largest
groups within the plant kingdom. This species also includes aquatic plants, desert plants, land plants, seasonal
plants, etc.
Angiosperms are characterised by flowers and ovules, borne in an ovary which matures into a fruits containing
one or more seeds.
Characteristics of Angiospermophyta (angiosperms)
 They produce flowers in which sporangia, spores and seeds develop
 The xylem contains vessels
 The seeds are enclosed in an ovary
 After fertilization, the ovary develops into a fruit.

Angiosperms are classified into two classes, namely:

 Class Monocotyledoneae (Monocotyledons or Monocots)
 Class Dicotyledoneae (Dicotyledons or Dicots)

Class Monocotyledoneae (Monocots)

 They are mostly herbaceous plants
 The leaves have parallel veins
 They possess fibrous root system
 The leaves are generally long and thin with no petiole
 The flower parts are generally in threes or multiples of three
 The seeds have typically one seed leaf or cotyledon
 They have no distinct petals and sepals. They are combined to form perianth
 vascular cambium is usually absent as a result no secondary growth occurs

Examples include grasses, palms, cereal crops, (e.g. maize and guinea corn, rice, wheat, sorghum), onions,
sugar cane, lilies, plantain, banana, bamboo etc.
Class Dicotyledoneae (Dicotyledons or Dicots)
 They possess tap root system
 They have net-like or reticulate venation
 The flower parts are generally in fours or fives
 They have two cotyledons (seed leaves) in each seed
 The leaves have broad lamina and petiole (leaf stalk)
 They have distinct petals and sepals.

Examples: Pepper, beans, yams, mango trees, silk cotton plants, crotalaria, flamboyant, pride of Barbados,
pear etc.
NOTE: Seed plants are grouped into two, namely: Angiosperms (seed enclosed in a vessel or case) and
Gymnosperms (naked seed plants).
 Differences between Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
1. The leaves are usually narrow The leaves are usually broad
2. The seed has one cotyledon The seed has two cotyledons
3.. They have no petiole/leaf sheath present Petiole is present/leaf sheath absent
4. They have parallel leaf venation They have net or reticulate venation
They have fibrous root system They have tap root system
5.
6. Floral parts are usually arranged in threes or Floral parts arranged in fours or fives or
multiples of multiples of five
Threes
7. Petals and sepals are not distinguishable Petals and sepals are distinguishable.

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
The word 'animal' is derived from the Latin word animalis which means 'having breath'. The Kingdom Animalia
is characterized by eukaryotic and heterotrophic organisms. They are multicellular and lack cell wall. They
depend directly or indirectly on plants for their food. Food is ingested and digested in their internal cavity and
food reserves are stored as glycogen or fat. Nutrition is holozoic, i.e., by ingestion of food.
General characteristics of the Kingdom Animalia
 They are eukaryotic
 They are multicellular
 They are heterotrophic organisms because they have no chlorophyll
 They have special excretory systems for removal of waste materials
 They have nervous system for coordination
 They have the ability to move from one place to another.

Kingdom Animalia Classification

Kingdom Animalia has approximately 36 sub-divisions known as 'phyla'. All the Phyla in this kingdom can be
put into two main groups, namely: Invertebrates and Vertebrates. Invertebrates are the animals that do not have
a backbone or the vertebral column.
General characteristics of invertebrates
  They do not have spinal column or backbone.
 They are multicellular organisms
 Due to the lack of complex skeletal systems, some invertebrates tend to be slow and small in nature.
 Due to the lack of the backbone and complex nervous system the invertebrates cannot occupy multiple
environments, though they are found in the harshest of the environments.
 Most of them have tissues that are specific organization of cells.

The following phyla are to be considered under the kingdom animalia

 Phylum Cnidaria (Cnidarians)
 Phylum Poriphera (Sponges)
 Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
 Phylum Nematoda (roundworms)
 Phylum Annelida (segmented worms)
 Phylum Mollusca (molluscs)
 Phylum Arthropoda (Arthropods)
 Phylum Echinodermata (Echinoderms)
 Phylum Chordata (Chordates)

PHYLUM PORIFERA (SPONGES)

 Most live-in saltwater environments

 From Latin word “porus” meaning pore and “fera” meaning bearer.
 Members of this phylum are commonly known as sponges.
 Habitat - They are mostly marine; few are found in fresh water.
 Body symmetry - mostly are assymetrical animals, no definite shape to the body.
 Level of organization - These are primitive animals, multicellular with cellular grade of organization.
 Motility - Adult sponges are sessile, that is they need a substratum to attach themselves to a surface and
do not move.
 Mode of Nutrition - Due to the sessile nature, sponges are filter feeders.
 Digestion - Digestion is intracellular.
 Skeleton - The body of sponges is supported by a skeleton made of spicules or spongin fibres.
 Reproduction - Sexes are not separate, they are hermaphrodites. Hermaphroditism - condition where eggs
and sperms are produced by the same individual. Sponges reproduce asexually by fragmentation and
sexually by formation of gametes.
 Fertilization - Fertilization is internal.
 Development - Indirect development, having a larval stage which is morphologically distinct from the
adult.
 Water transport or Canal system - Sponges have water transport system. Water enters through minute
pores (Ostia) in the body wall into a central cavity known as spongocoel. From the spongocoel water goes
out through the osculum. This water system aids in food gathering, respiratory exchange and removal of
wastes.
 Choanocytes - These are collar cells, they line the spongocoel and the canals.
 Examples: Sycon, Euspongia, Spongilla.

FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS
 The body is like a container with a single opening at the top called osculum.
 They are asymmetrical (lacks body symmetry).
  Internal skeleton made of spicules and sponging.
 Two layers of porous tissue with no organ structure.
 Between the two tissue layers is a gelatinous matrix called Mesohyl.
 They are sessile or non-motile.

Phylum Cnidaria (Cnidarians)

Characteristics
 They are aquatic mostly marine animals,
 They are sessile or free-swimming.
 They exhibit tissue level of organization.
 They are diploblastic animals; body wall is made of 2 layers, outer ectoderm and inner endoderm which
are separated by non cellular mesogloea.
 They are radially symmetrical.
 They have a central gastro-vascular cavity with a single opening hypostome, which serves as both the
mouth and the anus.
 They also have a sac-like body which also serves as gut called the Enteron.
 Specialized cells known as the cnidoblasts or cnidocytes which contain the stinging capsules or
nematocytes are present on the tentacles and the body. Cnidoblasts are used for anchorage, defense and
for the capture of prey.
 Some cnidarians’ like corals have skeleton composed of calcium carbonate.
 Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms called polyp and medusa. The polyp is a sessile form and
cylindrical in shape like the Hydra, Adamsia etc. The medusa form is umbrella shaped and free-
swimming forms like Aurelia or jelly-fish.
 Metagenesis - Cnidarians which exhibit both polyp and medusa form exhibit alternation of generation,
this is known as metagenesis. Polyps produce medusa asexually and medusa forms the polyps sexually.
 Locomotion - The body contains nerve network that allows movement of tentacles and body.

Examples include: Hydra, Obelia, Aurelia (Jellyfish).

Examples: Sea anemone, Corals.

Cnidaria
Two types of body plan: sessile polyp and floating medusa.
Polyps: Has tentacles at end of the body and it captures prey.
Ex) hydra and sea anemone
Medula: has bell shaped body that helps it move in water in
addition to passively moving in water.

Cnidocytes are unique cells on the tentacles that act

as a defense.

Phylum Platyhelminthes

 They are commonly called as flatworms;

 they have dorso-ventrally flattened body.
 Habit - They are mostly endoparasitic found in animals
and human beings.
 Habitat - Fresh-water and salt water; terrestrial.
 Body symmetry - Flatworms are bilaterally symmetrical.
 Body wall - They are Triploblastic animals.
 Coelomic cavity - They are acoelomate animals
 Level of organization - Organ level of organization.
 They have only one opening, that is mouth, that is the digestive cavity has a single opening (no anus)
 Parasitic flatworms possess hooks and suckers to hold on to the body of the host. Some forms absorb
nutrition directly from the host, through their body surface.
 Osmoregulation and excretion is carried out by specialized cells called flame cells.
 Sexes are not separate.
 Fertilization is internal and development is indirect, having many larval stages.
 Some members like Planaria possess high regeneration capacity.
 Examples: Taenia (tapeworm), Fasciola (liver fluke).
Here is a picture showing the increasing complexity of the three main body plans:

 Diploblastic acoelomate
 Triploblastic acoelomate
 Triploblastic coelomate

All phyla fit into one of the three body plans shown in the diagram above.
When we talk about complexity in phyla, we refer to the number of tissue layers and whether it has a coelom.
The more tissue layers, and the presence of a coelom the more complex the animal. Humans, for example, have
a coelom and are triploblastic making them one of the most complex organisms in terms of their body plan.
Diploblastic: An animal possessing 2 major tissue layers. These include the outer layer (the ectoderm) and the
inner layer (the endoderm).
Triploblastic: An animal possessing 3 major tissue layers. It has a middle layer (the mesoderm), between the
endoderm and the ectoderm.
Coelom: Fluid-filled cavity within the mesoderm. It is not the gut.
Having a coelom gives the animal certain advantages:
It enables independent movement of the gut wall and the body wall.
It provides space of the enlargement and development of internal organs.
It may act as a circulatory medium for transport of materials or a storage area of excess or waste materials.

Phylum Platyhelminthes is divided into three classes.

Class Turbellaria (Planarians)

 They are mostly free-living flatworms found in both fresh and marine waters.
 The mouth is ventral and the pharynx is protrusible.
 Regeneration is common in these worms.
 Cuticle is absent
  The outer surface is covered with cilia for locomotion
 Suckers are rarely present
 Many have simple eyes
Examples: Dugesia (Planaria).

Class Trematoda (Flukes)

 They are ecto or endoparasitic worms (flukes)
 They have neither simple eyes nor cilia.
 Body is unsegmented
 Body is covered with thick cuticle for protection
 They posses one or more suckers for attachment to host
 Mouth is anterior.
 They are mostly hermaphrodite but some unisexual forms are also found.

Examples
Fasciola, Schistosoma (blood fluke of man and other mammals), Polystomum (endoparasite of the urinary
bladder of frog and turtle). Opisthorchis / Clonorchis sinensis is Chinese liver fluke, Paragonimus - lung fluke.

Fasciolopsis - The fluke occurring in human beings.

THE LIFE CYCLE OF SCHISTOSOMA

Schistosomiasis is caused by blood trematodes.
The life cycles of the Schistosomes are complex. It involves the following
 Infection occurs when cercariae, free-living in fresh water penetrate the skin while in the water. The
cercaria loses its tail becoming a schistosomule
 The schistomules pass several days in the skin then enter the various tissues to the veins and eventually
migrate to the lungs (generally within 5 to 7 days of penetration
 They then travel through the circulatory system to the hepato portal circulation (after fifteen days) where
they mature into adult worms and mate
 Depending on the species, the schistosomes migrate to their final infection site either on the bladder or
 the intestine where the females begin egg production
 These are attached to the wall of the lumen. They then penetrate to the wall of the lumen
 The eggs are then expelled in the faeces or urine.
 The miracidium, liberated from the egg, seek out snail hosts where they enter a sporocyst stage that
eventually results in free-living cercariae that seek out human hosts.

Females release eggs which move from the veins to the lumen of the intestine (S. mansoni and S. japonicum) or
the bladder (S. haematobium). The eggs are then passed from the body in the feces or urine.

Class Cestoda (Tapeworms)

 These worms are endoparasitic in the alimentary canal (mostly intestine) of vertebrates.
 The body is covered with cuticle for protection
 Have no cilia.
 The body is generally divided into a few many proglotids (not true segments) which are able to break
off. Each proglotids has one to two sets of complete hermaphrodite reproductive organs.
 The scolex (head) bears adhesive structures like hooks and
suckers.

The life cycle is complicated and generally involves two or more hosts.
Examples: Taenia solium which lives as a parasite in the
alimentary canal of man [adult worm] and in pig muscle [embryo
or bladder worm] (Tapeworm) Echinococcus (Dog
tapeworm) it is the smallest tapeworm. Taenia saginata (Beef
tapeworm).
Phylum Nematoda (Roundworms)
Characteristics
 They may be free-living, aquatic and terrestrial or parasitic in plants and animals
 Body is unsegmented
 Round worms have organ-system level of organization
 They are bilaterally symmetrical.
 They are triploblastic animals.
 They are pseudocoelomate animals.
 They posses complete alimentary canal with both mouth and anus
 The body is elongated and cylindrical in shape
 They are dioecious - the sexes are separate i.e., males and females are distinct. Often females are longer
than the males.
 They posses thick and elastic cuticle
 Fertilization is internal.
 Development may be direct - the young ones resemble the adult, or indirect.

Examples: Ascaris lumbricoides, (round worm), Wuchereria bancrofti (microfilaria worm, causes
elephantiasis), Ancylostoma duodenal (hookworm), Dracunculus medinensis, Onchocerca volvulus.

phylum Annelida (Segmented worms)

o Their bodies are cylindrical, elongated and tapers (pointed) at both ends
o They are segmented and they show metamerism. (their body segments are all similar in shape
and structure)
 o They have Hydrostatic skeleton
o They have simple excretory, circulatory, respiratory, nervous and reproductive systems
Classes under phylum Annelida
o Class Polychaeta (marine worms)
o Class Oligochaeta (earth worms)
o Class Hirudinea (leeches)
Class Polychaeta
o They are mostly marine (they dwell at the sea shore)
o They have distinct head with eyes and tentacles
o They have paired appendages called parapodia on each of their segments. These appendages
bear bristle-like structures called chaetae (singular: chaeta). The chaetae are used in movement
and sensitivity
e.g. Arenicola marina (lug worm), Nereis pelagica (bristle worm)

class Oligochaeta
o This class contains both terrestrial and aquatic species
o They have no distinct head
o They have parapodia
o They have few chaetae for movement
o They have a clitellum on their body which is used for copulation and secreting the cocoon. The
cocoon is a case within which the embryo lives till it hatches. E.g. earth worm (Lumbricus terrestris)
Class Hirudinea
o They are ectoparasites
o They have suckers at both ends
o They have no chaeta
o They have no distinct head
o They have no parapodia
e.g. Macrobdella decora (fresh water leech) and Notostumum laeve (marine leech)

PHYLUM MOLLUSCA

 Mollusks are terrestrial or aquatic; they may be marine or fresh water.

 They are bilaterally symmetrical
 They are Triploblastic animals
 They are Coelomate animals
 Body is covered by a calcareous shell
 Body is unsegmented
 the body is divided into a distinct head, muscular foot and visceral hump
 They have soft and fleshy body
 Limbs are absent
 They have a Mantle which is a fold of skin that surrounds the body organs
 It is a soft and spongy layer of skin that forms a mantle over the visceral hump.
 The space between the hump and the mantle is called the mantle cavity.
 Feather like gills are present in this cavity.
 These gills have respiratory and excretory functions. Anterior head region has sensory tentacles.
 Example: Pila, Octopus, Pearl oyster, Loligo, Sea-hare, Chiton.

Classes under phylum mollusca

o Class Gastropoda (Gastropods)
o Class Pelecypoda (Bivalves)
o Class Cephalopoda (Cephalopds)
Class Gastropoda (Gastropods)

 They have distinct head with sensory tentacles and eyes

 Possesses a large flat foot for locomotion and a radula (The radula - Mouth of the mollusks contain
tongue-like organ called radula, which has many rows of teeth, which is used to scrape food)
 Have a single shell which is usually coiled
  They are asymmetrical
 They are terrestrial, marine and freshwater
 They have anus located anteriorly of the organism.

Examples: Snails, Slugs and Limpets.

Class Pelecypoda bivalves)

o They are all aquatic (mostly marine and a few fresh water forms)
o They are laterally flattened (flattened on their sides)
o They lack distinct head, radula and tentacles
o Their shell is made up of two lateral valves which are held together by a hinge
o They have gills that are sheet-like
o They may either be unisexual or bisexual e.g. clams, mussels and oysters
Class Cephalopoda
o They are mostly marine
o They have well developed head and eyes
o They have a ring of tentacles with suckers for seizing prey
o They may have external or internal skeleton (shell)
o They move using their siphon
o They have radula for feeding e.g. Octopus and Squid

PHYLUM ARTHROPODA (Arthropods)

 They are bilaterally symmetrical.

 They are Triploblastic animals
 They have metameric segmented bodies
 They are Coelomate animals.
 The body of arthropods is covered by chitinous exoskeleton.
 Periodic moulting of the exoskeleton permits growth
 They have jointed appendages - arthros - jointes, poda - appendages, hence the name is derived from this
characteristic.
 Respiration is through organs like gills, book gills, book lungs or tracheal system.
  Sensory organs are present, antennae, eyes (compound and simple), statocysts or balance organs are
present.
 Excretion - It takes place through malphigian tubules.
 Mostly they are dioecious.
 Fertilization is usually internal.
 They are oviparous animals.
 Development may be direct or indirect.

Examples: Honey bee, Silkworm, Lac insect, Mosquitoes, Locust, Crab

Classes under phylum Arthropoda

 Class Crustacea (Crustaceans)
 Class Chilopoda (Centipedes)
 Class Diplopoda (millipedes)
 Class Insecta (insects)
 Class Arachnida (arachnids)

Class Crustacea (Crustaceans)

 They posses two body divisions, that is cephalothorax (fused head and thorax) and abdomen
 Head bears two pairs of antennae
 Have five pairs of walking legs
 They have a pair of stalked eyes
 Gaseous exchange is by means of gills
Examples: Crayfish, barnacles, prawn, crabs, lobsters, water fleas, shrimps and copepods.

Class Chilopoda (Centipedes)

o They are all terrestrial. They live in moist places
o Their body is divided into the head and trunk
o They have a pair of compound eyes and antennae on their heads
o The head bears poisonous jaws
 o Each segment bears a pair of jointed walking legs
o They are dorso-ventrally flattened
o They are carnivorous
o Gaseous exchange is by means of spiracles

Class Diplopoda (Millipedes)

o Their bodies are divided into the head and trunk
o The head bears compound eyes and a pair of antennae
o Each segment bears a pair of jointed walking legs
o Their bodies are cylindrical
o They are herbivorous
o Gaseous exchange is by means of spiracles

Class Arachnida (Arachnids/ chelicerates)

o They have two body divisions, that is cephalothorax (fused head and thorax) and abdomen
o Cephalothorax bears four pairs of long hairy walking legs, the hairs on the legs are sensitive to touch
and vibrations
o They Posses pedipalps (this is part of the mouthpart of spiders and other arachnids which are used for
feeding and as feelers. The male also use the pedipalps to transfer sperms to the females during mating).
o Posses simple eyes
o Has no antennae
o Gills modified to form book lungs for gaseous exchange
Examples include: spiders, scorpions, ticks and mites.
NOTE: book lungs are the breathing organs in spiders and other arachnids with membranous tissue arranged in
folds that resemble the leaves of a book.

class Insecta (insects)

o They are characterized by three body divisions; head, thorax and abdomen.
o The head has compound eyes and a pair of antennae
o The thorax has three pairs of jointed legs
o Most adults have wings
o They have antennae which are sensitive to touch and vibrations
Orders of class Insecta
o Order Odonata
o Order Orthoptera
o Order Diptera
o Order Coleoptera
o Order Lepidoptera
o Order Hymenoptera
o Order Hemiptera
o Order Isoptera
o Order Dictyoptera
Order Odonata
o They have narrow and elongated abdomen
o Their wings are membranous
o They have large eyes
o They have reduced antennae
e.g. Dragonfly and Damselfly
Order Orthoptera
 o They have large hind legs, specialized for jumping
o They have membranous hind wings and hard fore wings
o They show incomplete metamorphosis e.g. grass hopper, locust and cricket

Order Diptera
o They have clearly visible fore wings but hind wings are reduced to form structures known as
Halteres. The halteres are used for balancing during flight.
o They show complete metamorphosis e.g. mosquito, housefly etc.

Order Coleoptera

o their fore wings are modified to form a hard exoskeleton known as elytron (plural: elytra). The elytra
protect the hind wings
o they have biting and chewing mouthparts
o they show complete metamorphosis e.g. grain weevil, rhinoceros beetle etc.
Order Lepidoptera
o Their wings and are covered with scales
o They have two large membranous wings
o Their mouthparts are modified to form a proboscis which is used to suck nectar. E.g. butterfly, moth
etc.

Order Hymenoptera
o They have a narrow waist between the thorax and the abdomen
o Some members are wingless e.g. ants, bees, wasps etc.

Order Hemiptera

o They have piercing and sucking mouthparts, modified into a rostrum

o They have two pairs of wings
o They show incomplete metamorphosis e.g. cotton stainer, water boatman etc.

Order Isoptera
o They have broad waist
o They have biting and chewing mouth parts
 o They have two pairs of membranous hind wings
o They show incomplete metamorphosis
o They are social insects e.g. termites

Order Dictyoptera

o They have two pairs of wings; a pair of leathery fore wings and a pair of membranous hindwings
o They have well-developed legs of about the same size
o They show incomplete metamorphosis e.g. cockroach

PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
The classes of phylum Echinodermata include:
 Class Stelleroidea.
 Class Echinoidea.
 Class Ophiiuroidea.
 Class Holothuroidea
 Class crinoidea.

CLASS STELLEROIDEA
 Star shaped with five arms
 Dorsoventrally flattened with calcareous plates.
 Presence of movable spines.
 Arms not fully demarcated from central disc.
Example: Star fish and brittle star.
 CLASS ECHINOIDEA
 Have body shaped like a globe.
 No arms
 Body possesses long spines

Example: sea urchin

CLASS OPHIUROIDEA
 Body is star shaped with five long and slender arms;
 Five long arms which are clearly demarcated from the central disc.

Example: Brittle star.

CLASS HOLOTHUROIDEA
 Elongated body like cucumber.
 They are the only class of echinoderms with soft body.
 Mouth is surrounded by modified tube feet that form a ring of tentacles.

Example: Sea cucumber

CLASS CRINOIDEA
 Mouth on the top surface and surrounded by feeding arms.
Example: Sea lilies and feather star.

PHYLUM CHORDATA
 o Phylum chordata consist of all animals with a backbone (vertebral column)
o They possess a notochord (a slender, rod-like structure found at the dorsal region). The notochord
develops into a vertebral column in most members
o Almost all chordates have post anal tails
o They are triploblastic coelomates
e.g. grass cutter, tilapia, lion, humans etc.

Vertebrates:
Vertebrate are the animals belonging to the sub-phylum Vertebrata. They belong to the Phylum Chordata. The
characteristics of phylum Chordata are the presence of notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord and paired
pharyngeal gill slits. The members of subphylum Vertebrata possess notochord during the embryonic period. The
notochord is replaced by a cartilaginous or bony vertebral column in the adult. All vertebrate are chordates but
all chordates are not vertebrates. Special characteristics of vertebrates other than the vertebral column are, they
have a muscular heart which is two, three or four chambered. For excretion they have kidneys and appendages
that are paired which may be fins or limbs.

Vertebrate Characteristics
General characteristics of the sub-phylum Vertebrata are as follows:

 Vertebrates have a well-developed brain.

 Brain is set inside a bony box, known as cranium.
 Notochord is present in all chordates during sometime of development which is replaced by the vertebral
column
 Most vertebrates possess guts with a non-terminal anus.
 The mouth cavity and the esophagus are connected by the pharyngeal gill slits to a muscular tube
pharynx, which opens to the exterior.
 They possess a hollow dorsal nerve tube (spinal cord) consisting of nerve cells
 They possess pharyngeal clefts, (slits leading from inside the pharynx to the outside of the body, in fishes,
the pharyngeal slits become gill slits, in terrestrial chordates they are represented by Eustachian tubes
connecting the ear to the back of the throat)
 At some stage of their life possess gill slits in the pharyngeal region.
 They possess post anal tail
 They are bilaterally symmetrical
 They have four limbs and so they are called tetrapods. The limbs are for walking, swimming, running and
flying.
 The endoskeleton is made of cartilage or bone.

Vertebrate Classification
 classes under phylum chordata
o Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes)
o Class Osteichthyes (bony fishes)
o Class Amphibia (amphibians)
o Class Reptilia (reptiles)
o Class Aves (birds)
o Class Mammalia (mammals)

Class – Cyclostomata (Jawless fish)

The living members of this class are:
 All ectoparasites on some fishes.
 They have an elongated body.
 They bear 6-15 pairs of gills through which they respire.
 They have mouth without jaws.
 They do not have body scales and paired fins.
 The vertebral column and the cranium are cartilaginous.
 They are marines’ organisms but they migrate to fresh water for spawning. After metamorphosis their
larvae returns to the ocean.

Examples: Lamprey, Hagfish and Eels.

Class Chondrichthyes
 They are marine organisms
 They have streamlined body
 They have endoskeleton made of cartilage
 Mouth is ventrally positioned and the notochord is present throughout life.
  The gills are separate and are not covered by the operculum.
 The skin contains minute placoid scales
 The placoid scales are modified as teeth and the jaws are powerful
 They are predaceous animals, ( that is, they hunt, kill and eat other animals)
 Air bladder is absent in these animals, hence, they have to swim constantly to avoid shrinking
 Their tail is heterocercal
 Examples: sharks, skates, and rays, as well as chimaeras, also known as ratfish.

Class Osteichthyes
o These are fishes whose skeletons are made up of bones
o They have overlapping scales covering their body
o They have opercula which cover their gills
o Their mouth is at the anterior end of their body
o Their fins are supported and strengthened by fin rays
e.g. tilapia, herrings etc.

Differences between Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes

Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes

Fertilization is internal Fertilization is external

Mouth is ventrally positioned Mouth is terminally positioned

They have fleshy fins They have rayed or bony fins

 They have no operculum but gill slit is present Operculum covers the gills/ operculum is
present

Their bodies are covered with tooth-like Their bodies are covered with bony overlapping
scales/sharp pointed scales/placoid scales plate-like scales/cycloid scales

They have cartilaginous skeleton They have skeleton made of bones

Swim bladder is absent Swim bladder is present

class Amphibia (amphibians)

The name Amphibia indicates - from Greek, Amphi meaning dual and bios meaning life.
 Ampibians can live both in aquatic and terrestrial habitats.

 They are tetrapods (they have four limbs for movement)

 They survive both in water and on land
 Their skin is smooth, moist and scaleless
 They have webbed digits
 They all breed in water.
 Body is divided into head and trunk and tail is present in the larval stage
 The skin of these animals is scaleless and moist.
 The eyes have eyelids, and the ears are represented by a tympanum.
 Cloaca is an opening to the exterior; it is a common chamber for the alimentary canal, urinary and
reproductive tracts.
 Gills (for the young), lungs (adults) and skin aids in respiration.
 Heart is three-chambered.
 They are cold-blooded animals (poikilothermic)
 Sexes are separate
 Fertilization is external.
 They are oviparous animals and development is indirect.

Example: Toad, frog, salamander.

Class Reptilia
In Latin repere or reptum means to creep or crawl, hence, the class name refers to locomotion that is of creeping
or crawling mode.
 They are mostly terrestrial
 Their body is covered with dry and cornified skin, epidermal scales or scutes.
 External ear opening is absent, tympanum represents the ear.
 They have two pairs of Limbs
 They have three chambered heart but is four chambered in crocodiles.
 They are poilkilothermic animals. (their internal body temperature depends on that of the environment)
 Some animals like the snake and the lizards shed their skin.
 They have Pentadactyl limbs (their limbs are divided into five regions)
 They have homodont dentition (all their teeth are of the same size and shape)

 Sexes are separate, internal fertilization takes place.
 They are oviparous and development is direct.

Example: Turtle, Chameleon, crocodile, tortoise, snake, chameleon, lizard etc

class Aves
Most of the members can fly, except the flightless birds. The characteristic features of birds are:
 The body is covered with feathers
 The forelimbs are modified to form wings.
 The hind limbs are modified for walking, swimming or clasping
 They have two legs covered with scales
 The skin is dry and does not have glands, except an oil gland at the base of the tail.
 Endoskeleton is bony, and the bones are hollow with air cavities known as pneumatic bones.
 Heart is four-chambered completely.
 They are warm-blooded animals.
 Lungs are the organs of respiration.
 Fertilization is internal.
 They are oviparous animals and development is direct.
 They have beak but no teeth
 They have no external ear
Example: Crow, Pigeon, Parrot etc.
 class Mammalia
Mammals are present in almost all habitats - polar ice caps, deserts, mountains, forests, and grasslands.The
unique characteristic of the class mammalia is:
 Presence of milk producing glands (mammary glands), by which the young ones are nourished.
 They have two pairs of limbs
 The skin is covered with hairs or fur
 External ear 'pinna' is present.
 Heart is four-chambered and
 They are homoeothermic animals.
 Respiration is through lungs.
 Sexes are separate and fertilization is internal.
 They are viviparous animals. (Internal fertilization)
Example: Kangaroo, Tiger, Lion, Platypus etc.

ORDERS OF CLASS MAMMALIA

ORDER ARTIODACTYLA
 herbivorous
 hooves with even number of toes
Example: cow, camel

ORDER PERISODACTYLA
 herbivorous
 hooves have odd number of toes
Example: zebra, horse, donkey
 ORDER PROBOSCIDEA
 Nose elongated into mobile trunk
Example: Elephant

Elephant

ORDER RODENTIA
 Small; one pair of chisel-like incisor teeth which gnaw food.
Example: mouse, squirrel

ORDER LAGOMORPHA
 Two pairs of chisel-like teeth in upper jaw which gnaw food.
Example: Rabbit

ORDER CARNIVORA
 Long, curved and pointed canine teeth.
 Carnassial cheek teeth which shear meet from bones.
Example: dogs, cats, lions.

ORDER CHIROPTERA
 Modified fingers of fore limbs covered with wings of skin.
Example: Bat

ORDER CETACEA
 Marine
 Streamlined body
 Fore limbs modified into flippers
 No hind limbs.
 Very much reduced hair.
Example: Whale

ORDER PRIMATES
 Hands and feet modified to grasp.
 Nails on fingers and toes.
 Eyes at front of head.
 Mobile neck
Example: humans, monkeys etc.

TAXONOMIC KEYS (IDENTIFICATION KEYS OF BIOLOGICAL KEYS)

identifying organisms using biological keys
o They are used for quick and accurate identification of organisms
 o It uses the distinct observable features of an organism. E.g. an organism with jointed legs is an
arthropod and an organism with three body divisions is an insect.
o There are two types of biological keys; Dichotomous key and
Numbered key. Dichotomous key

o In order to construct a dichotomous key, the organisms are paired based on clearly observable external
features.
o Organisms are classified into two distinct groups
o One particular feature is chosen and observed for two organisms e.g. presence of wings
between ant and mosquito
o An example of a dichotomous key of insects is summarized below

o Dichotomous keys require a lot of space, especially when many organisms are involved. For this
reason, a numbered key is preferred

Numbered key

o A numbered key is done by assigning numbers to particular organisms, based on one external feature
that they share in common
o An example of a numbered key for some vertebrates is summarized below

i. Cold blooded go to
2 Warm blooded go to
4
ii. Presence of fins but no limbs--------------------------------------fish
Presence of four limbs go to 3
iii. Has no scales on its body-------------------------------------------amphibians
Has scales on its body Reptiles
iv. Has feathers birds
Has fur/hair mammals.