CHAPTER 9

Noise Pollution
 PART I
Noise and Acoustic

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WHAT IS SOUND?
 Sound is an aural sensation caused by pressure
variations in the air which are always generated
from vibrating objects.
 The vibrational energy can be transmitted in a
gas, liquid or Solid medium.
 If we view a large number of air molecules
simultaneously, it would be possible to pick out
zones of compression and rarefaction.

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FREQUENCY
 The number of complete
variations or cycles that
occur in one second is
called the frequency of
the sound wave.
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 The frequency is frequecy(Hz) =
Period of Time(sec)
measured in Hertz (Hz).
 The more rapid the  1 Hz = 1 cycle per second
vibrations; the higher
 1 kHz = 1000 cycles per
the frequency. second

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WAVELENGTH
 This is the distance travelled by the sound during
the period of one complete vibration.

compression

rarefaction

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SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL (SPL) AND
SOUND POWER LEVEL (SWL)
 A sound source radiates
power and this results in
a sound pressure.
 Sound power is the cause.
 Sound pressure is the
effect.
 Sound power is the rate
at which energy is
radiated (energy per unit
time).

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 What we hear is sound pressure but it is
caused by the sound power emitted from the
source.
 Too high a sound pressure may cause hearing
damage.
 So when trying to quantify human response to
sound, such as noise annoyance or the risk of
hearing loss, pressure is the obvious quantity
to measure.

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SOUND PRESSURE
 If the sources cause level SPL1 andSPL2 at a
point, the total SPL is given by :

 Or any number of incoherent sources, the total

sound pressure level is

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SOUND INTENSITY

 Any piece of
machinery that
vibrates / radiates
acoustical energy.
 Sound intensity
describes the rate of
energy flow through
a unit area.
 Unit: W/m2

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 Sound intensity also gives a measure of direction
as there will be energy flow in some directions
but not in others.
 Therefore sound intensity is a vector quantity as
it has both magnitude and direction

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SOUND FIELDS
 A sound field is a
region where there is
sound.
 It is classified
according to the
manner and the
environment in
which the sound
waves travel.
 Free Field
 Diffuse Field

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THE FREE FIELD
 This term describes sound propagation in
idealized free space where there are no
reflections.
 These conditions hold in the open air
(sufficiently far enough away from the ground)
or in an anechoic room where all the sound
striking the walls is absorbed.
 Free field propagation is characterized by a 6
dB drop in sound pressure level and intensity
level (in the direction of sound propagation)
each time the distance from the source is
doubled.
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THE DIFFUSE FIELD
 In a diffuse field, sound is reflected so many
times that it travels in all directions with equal
magnitude and probability.
 This field is approximated in a reverberant room.
 Although the net intensity is zero, there is a
theoretical relationship which relates the
pressure in the room to the one-sided Intensity, Ix

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DECIBELS LEVELS
 The sound pressure, intensity and power
levels, (SPL, SIL and SWL respectively), are
all measured in dBs.
 Decibels are a ratio of the specified quantity
measured against some reference.
 For pressure the reference level is chosen so
that it corresponds approximately to the
threshold of hearing.

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AVERAGING DECIBELS (LEQ)
 When we take several noise measurements for a
sound source and would like to obtain the
average noise level at a distance from the source,
we have to use the following formula :

1 N Li
L eq = 10log (∑ t i 10 10 ) or
T j=1
1
L eq = 10log (10 SPL1/10 + 10 SPL 2 /10 + 10 SPL n /10 )
n

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EXAMPLE 1
 Consider the case where a noise level of
90 dB exists for five minutes and is
followed by a reduced noise level of 60
dB for 50 minutes. What is the
equivalent continuous sound level for
55-minute period?

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EXAMPLE 1 SOLUTION

1 N Li
Leq = 10 log (∑ t i 10 10 )
T j =1
1 90 dB 60 dB
= 10 log[ (5 × 10 10
+ 50 × 10 10 )]
5 + 50
= 79.6dB − 1 min

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EXAMPLE 2
 At the fence of an industrial plant the data
shown below were obtained.
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Li (dB) 76.3 78.8 81.3 83.8 86.3 88.8 91.3 93.8 96.3 98.8
%*100 0.2 0.3 5.0 12.4 19.6 21.3 16.7 13.8 10.2 0.5

 Ten equal intervals from 76.5 dB to 98.8 dB were

employed. It is required to determine the Leq.

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EXAMPLE 2 SOLUTION

1
L eq = 10log (10SPL1/10 + 10SPL 2 /10 + 10SPL n /10 )
n
1
= 10log (0.2 ×1076.3/10 + 0.3 ×1078.8/10 + 5.0 ×1081.3/10
100
+ 12.4 ×1083.8/10 + 19.6 ×1086.3/10 + 21.3 ×1088.8/10 +
16.7 ×1091.3/10 + 13.8 ×1093.8/10 + 10.2 ×1096.3/10 +
0.5 ×1098.8/10 )
= 10log1.311 ×109
= 91.18dB
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WEIGHTING SCALES

 Besides a linear reading of sound pressure

level, most meters have A, B, C and D scales
where the response varies with frequency as
shown as following figure and table.
 The A-weight response corresponds
approximately to the 40 dB equal-loudness
contour.
 The D-weight is specialized characteristic,
being the proposed standard for aircraft noise
measure in overseas.

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EXAMPLE 3
 Given the sound spectrum shown below, find
the overall
1. unweighted level in dB and
2. the A-weighted level in dB(A).

Frequency band (Hz)

31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

SPL 95 95 90 85 80 81 75 70 65

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ANSWER
 Unweighted resultant SPL
= 10 log[10(95/10) + 10(95/10) + 10(90/10) + 10(85/10) + 10(80/10) + 10(81/10) +
10(75/10) + 10(70/10) + 10(65/10)]
= 99 dB

Frequency band (Hz)

31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

SPL 95 95 90 85 80 81 75 70 65

Correct -39 -26 -16 -9 -3 0 1 1 -1

A- SPL 56 69 74 76 77 81 76 71 64

 A-weighted resultant SPL

= 10 log[10(56/10) + 10(69/10) + 10(74/10) + 10(76/10) + 10(77/10) + 10(81/10) +

10(76/10) + 10(71/10) + 10(64/10)]
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= 84.9 dB
 PART II
Noise Problem

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NOISE
 a source of nuisance to the inhabitants of most
cities
 causes loss of sleep, mental stress, interference

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with schooling and work, and even temporary or
permanent loss of auditory ability
 in HK many people are affected  high
population density
NOISE PROBLEMS IN HK
 >400,000 people affected by noise from percussive
piling
one million by traffic noise

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

 380,000 people by aircraft noise in the past

 relocation of the airport from Kowloon City to
Chek Lap Kok 200 people affected
SOURCE OF NOISE IN HONG KONG:
 aircraft noise, traffic noise, construction noise,
industrial noise – serious and persistent.
neighbourhood noise and air-conditioning noise –

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
less serious or more localized
NOISE IN OUR
DAILY LIFE

 ~ a million people are

exposed to a noise level of
road traffic higher than 70
dB(A) L10(1 hr), the
minimum acceptable
standard specified in the
HK Planning Standards &
Guidelines

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HK PLANNING STANDARDS &
GUIDELINES – CH 9 ENVIRONMENT
Noise Source Aircraft Noise (Noise Helicopte Road
Exposure Forecast: r Noise Traffic
Noise Standards NEF) Lmax Noise Rail Traffic
Fixed Noise Source
Uses New Chek dB(A) L10 Noise
Kai Tak (1hour)
Lap Kok
Airport Airport dB(A)

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All domestic premises 30 25 85 70 (a) Leq (24 hr) (a) 5 dB(A) below
including temporary = 65 dB(A) the appropriate
housing accommodation and Acceptable Noise
Hotels and hostels 30 25 85 70 (b) Levels shown in
Lmax(2300 - Table 3 of the
0700) = 85 Technical
Offices 30 30 90 70
dB(A) Memorandum for
the Assessment of
Educational institutions 30 25 85 65
including kindergardens,
Noise from Places
nurseries and all others where Other than
unaided voice communication Domestic Premises,
is required Public Places or
Places of public worship 30 25 85 65 Construction Sites
and courts of law and
(b) the prevailing
Hospitals, clinics 30 25 85 55
convalescences and homes for background noise
the aged levels
- diagnostic rooms
- wards
Amphitheatres, and auditoria, depends on use, depends on location and construction
libraries, performing arts extent and
centres and Country Parks construction
PROPAGATION OF SOUND
 Sound is transmitted by pressure variations
from its source to the surroundings.
 The sound level decreases as away from its

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source.
 The reduction of a sound is called attenuation.
 The effect of distance attenuation depends on
the type of sound sources.
 It may change its direction of propagation by
reflection, refraction and diffraction;
 That could be encountered as point or line
sources.
POINT SOURCE

 If the dimensions of a
noise source are small
compared with the
distance to the listener, it
is called a point source,
 Example, fans and
chimney stacks.
 The sound energy
spreads out spherically,
so that the sound
pressure level is the
same for all points at the
same distance from the
source

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 LINE SOURCE
 a noise source is narrow in
one direction and long in the
other compared to the
distance to the listener,
 it is called a line source.
 It can be a single source
such as a long pipe carrying
a turbulent fluid, or
 it can be composed of many
point sources operating
simultaneously, such as a
stream of vehicles on a busy
road.

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FACTORS TO INFLUENCE NOISE
TRANSMISSION
1. Wind speed
2. Temperature

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3. Ground Effects
WIND SPEED
 Wind speed increases with
altitude, which will bend the
path of sound to “focus” it on
the downwind side and make
a “shadow” on the upwind
side of the source.
 Downwind, the level may
increase by a few dB,
depending on wind speed.
 But measuring upwind or
side-wind, the level can drop
by over 20 dB, depending on
wind speed and distance.
 This is why downwind
measurement is preferred −
the deviation is smaller and
the result is also conservative.

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TEMPERATURE
 Temperature gradients create effects similar to those of wind
gradients, except that they are uniform in all directions from the
source.
On a sunny day with no wind, temperature decreases with

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
altitude, giving a “shadow” effect for sound.
 On a clear night, temperature may increase with altitude
(temperature inversion), “focusing” sound on the ground surface.
GROUND EFFECTS
 Sound reflected by the ground interferes with the
directly propagated sound.
 The effect of the ground is different for acoustically

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 hard (e.g., concrete or water),
 soft (e.g., grass, trees or vegetation) and
 mixed surfaces.
SOUND LEVEL METER (SLM)
 A typical sound level meter has the following six
blocks:
 microphone - a transducer which converts pressure

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variations into an equivalent electrical signal
 Pre-amplifier - which amplifies the very low
electrical signals from the microphone
 frequency weighting network - a filter used to
modify the meter response so that it emulates the
frequency response of the human ear
 Attenuators which are controlled using the level
range control switch of the instrument
 rms device which performs rms averaging on the
signal; the time constant used determines how fast
the meter responds to changes in the sound level
 an indicating device which can be a moving coil
instrument or a digital display
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 SET UP OF THE SOUND LEVEL
METER FOR NOISE MEASUREMENT
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ABOVE THE GROUND

 The international standard ISO 1996 gives a basic

guide on placing microphones both during
measurements outdoors and indoors. Of course this
depends on the purpose of the measurement, but as a

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general rule the height of the microphone above the
relevant ground level should be between 1.2 and 1.5
metres outdoor as well as indoor.
IN FRONT OF FACADES

 Where the aim is to

measure the noise to
which a building is

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exposed this should
preferably be made at a
distance of 1 to 2
meters away from the
facade. This would for
example be the
situation in connection
with an investigation of
traffic noise near
dwelling houses.
INDOOR
 When measurements are carried out indoor it is
recommended to measure at least 1 metre from walls
or any other major reflecting surface e.g. large pieces

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of furniture, and 1.5 metres away from windows.
NOISE CAN AFFECT HEARING IN
DIFFERENT WAYS

 Noise can affect hearing in 3 main ways:

1. Acoustic trauma

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2. Temporary threshold shift (TTS)
3. Noise induced hearing loss (NIHL)
4. Tinnitus
ACOUSTIC TRAUMA

 Damage to the ear resulting from a single

exposure or relatively few exposures to a very
intense level of sound (peak levels greater than

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140-150 dB), usually impulsive in nature, eg
explosions.
 Acoustic trauma from the effect of a single
exposure or relatively few exposures to a very
intense level of sound, may cause:
 damage to the ear drum;
 damage to the ear bones; and
 mechanical damage to hearing nervous (the hair cells,
supporting cells and tissues of the organ of Corti).
TEMPORARY THRESHOLD SHIFT (TTS)
 Temporary change in hearing level that recovers
between exposures, resulting from sound levels over
about 70 to 75 dB(A).
 A temporary threshold shift (TTS), which recovers
between exposures, is commonly experienced.
 You may have noticed sound seeming muffled after
exposure to loud noise or music.

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TEMPORARY THRESHOLD SHIFT (TTS)
 This may last, depending on the nature of the
exposure and the individual, for minutes, hours,
or days, after the sound has stopped.
 The complete recovery will be taking at least as
long as the original exposure time. This is shown
in the diagram above.

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NOISE INDUCED HEARING LOSS (NIHL)
 It occurs when exposure to
excessive noise continues
over a long period of time.
 It cause the nerve hairs in
the cochlea become damaged
and die.
 Both TTS and NIHL are
frequency dependent.
 NIHL generally occurs first
in the 4000Hz octave band.
In industries, a lot of noise
occurs at frequencies between
1500 Hz and 3500 Hz.
 Permanent damage to the ear
as a result of continued or
repeated exposure to
excessive noise over a period
of time.
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 FACTORS AFFECTING HEARING LOSS
 The development of TTS and NIHL depends on 3 ways of
the exposure:
◦ noise levels & duration,
 The equal energy concept which complies of noise level
and duration is used in assessing hearing loss.

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◦ noise spectrum,
 The higher the frequency of the noise (up to 6 kHz), the
greater the threshold shift produced by comparable
noise level and duration.
 This is because the frequency response of the auditory
conductive system (outer and middle ear) is not as
sensitive at low frequencies.
◦ temporal pattern.
 Intermittent noise is generally less hazardous than
continuous noise of the same A-weighted total energy
since there is time allowed in between exposure for the
hearing cells to rest and recover.
 END

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