Mastering the TOEFL ITP: A Strategic Guide to the Structure

and Written Expression Section

Module 1: Introduction to the TOEFL ITP Structure and Written
Expression Section
1.1. Purpose and Importance of the Section
The Structure and Written Expression section of the TOEFL ITP (Institutional Testing
Program) test plays a pivotal role in assessing a non-native English speaker's command
of English grammar in an academic context. Its primary purpose is to evaluate the test-
taker's ability to recognize and use standard written English accurately.1 A strong
performance in this section is not merely about achieving a high score; it reflects a
fundamental understanding of English sentence structure, which is essential for
comprehending academic texts, writing scholarly papers, and engaging effectively in an
English-medium higher education environment. While some critiques suggest that this
section of the Paper-Based Test (PBT) assesses grammatical skills in a somewhat
isolated manner without broader context 2, its emphasis on formal grammatical
conventions remains a key indicator of a student's readiness for academic challenges.

The focus on "standard written English" 1 has direct implications for preparation. Test-
takers should concentrate their efforts on mastering formal grammatical rules as
typically presented in grammar textbooks and academic writing guides, rather than on
informal language or conversational idioms. The questions are designed to be formal
and do not involve conversational language.2 This distinction guides study towards a
more structured and rule-based understanding of English.

Although the skills tested might appear isolated, success in this section can lay a robust
grammatical groundwork. This foundation, when combined with further practice in
communicative contexts, can be highly beneficial for other English proficiency tests,
such as the TOEFL iBT, or for real-world academic tasks. However, it is important for
students to recognize that proficiency in the ITP Structure and Written Expression
section, while valuable, is a specific skill set. To achieve broader communicative
competence, these foundational rules must be actively applied and practiced in more
integrated language use scenarios beyond the scope of typical ITP preparation.

1.2. Overview of What This Guide Covers

This comprehensive guide is designed to equip test-takers with the knowledge and
strategies necessary to excel in the TOEFL ITP Structure and Written Expression
section. It will systematically deconstruct the section's format, delve into the core
grammatical concepts frequently tested, and provide targeted strategies for tackling
both Sentence Completion (Structure) and Error Identification (Written Expression)
questions. Furthermore, this guide will highlight common pitfalls and tricky grammatical
areas, offer advice on effective time management, and suggest resources for further
practice. The aim is to provide a clear, accessible, and actionable pathway to mastering
this challenging yet crucial part of the TOEFL ITP.

Module 2: Deconstructing the Structure and Written Expression

Section
Understanding the architecture of the Structure and Written Expression section is the
first step towards effective preparation. This module breaks down its format, timing, and
the nature of its questions.

2.1. Detailed Format (Level 1)

The Structure and Written Expression section is consistently the second section
administered in the TOEFL ITP.2 For the Level 1 test (Intermediate to Advanced), it
comprises 40 multiple-choice questions, which test-takers must answer within a 25-
minute time limit.2 Every question presents four answer options, with only one being the
correct choice.2 While the content of the sentences may be drawn from various
academic disciplines, no specialized subject matter knowledge is required to answer the
questions; the focus is purely on grammatical correctness.2

This section is further divided into two distinct parts 1:

● Part A: Sentence Completion (Structure): This part consists of the first 15
questions (questions 1-15). Each question presents an incomplete sentence, and
the test-taker must choose the word or phrase from the four options that best
completes the sentence grammatically.1
● Part B: Error Identification (Written Expression): This part includes the
remaining 25 questions (questions 16-40). In each question, a sentence is
presented with four words or phrases underlined. The test-taker must identify the
one underlined portion that makes the sentence grammatically incorrect.1

The following table provides a concise overview:

Table 1: TOEFL ITP Structure & Written Expression Section at a Glance (Level 1)

Part Question Type Number of Question Primary Skills

Questions Numbers Tested

Part A: Structure Sentence 15 1-15 Recognizing

Completion correct sentence
 structure

Part B: Written Error 25 16-40 Identifying

Expression Identification grammatical
errors in written
sentences

This structured format means that test-takers can anticipate the type of task they will
face as they progress through the section, allowing for a more focused application of
specific strategies.

2.2. Time Allocation and Pacing

The time constraint in this section is demanding: 40 questions in 25 minutes translates
to an average of just 37.5 seconds per question.2 This rapid pace underscores the
necessity of efficient test-taking strategies. General advice from test authorities
emphasizes working quickly yet carefully, avoiding getting stuck on any single question,
and attempting to answer every question, as there is no penalty for incorrect answers. 4

The strict time limit inherently shapes the optimal approach. It is not feasible to conduct
a laborious, in-depth grammatical analysis of every sentence and all its options in the
way one might in a grammar class. Instead, success hinges on the ability to quickly
recognize correct grammatical patterns or identify common error types. This makes
familiarity with typical TOEFL ITP question structures and error categories extremely
important.

A critical procedural point for this section is the prohibition of note-taking. Test-takers
are not allowed to make any marks in their test booklets or on their answer sheets, such
as circling or underlining words.2 This policy means that all analytical work—breaking
down sentence structures, comparing options, or mentally checking for errors—must be
performed internally. This further elevates the importance of having well-internalized
grammar rules and a strong ability to recognize patterns, as visual aids or written
elimination processes are not permitted. Developing mental agility and a rehearsed
internal checklist of common grammatical issues becomes more critical than relying on
external aids.

Module 3: Mastering Core Grammatical Concepts for TOEFL ITP

A thorough understanding of specific English grammar rules is the bedrock of success
in the Structure and Written Expression section. This module details the essential
grammatical concepts and structures that are frequently tested, drawing extensively
from established skill lists and analyses of common errors.5

3.1. Sentence Structure Fundamentals

At its core, English grammar revolves around the correct formation of sentences.

3.1.1. Subject and Verb Identification

Every complete sentence in English must contain at least one subject and one main verb.5 The
subject is the noun or pronoun that performs the action of the verb or is described by it. The
verb expresses the action or state of being.
A common challenge in TOEFL ITP questions is the presence of distractors—phrases or
clauses that might be mistaken for the main subject or verb. Two such common distractors are:
● Objects of Prepositions: A noun or pronoun that follows a preposition (e.g., in, at,
of, to, by, behind, on) forms a prepositional phrase. The object of a preposition can
never be the subject of the sentence.5
○ Example: In the sentence, "The report on the recent discoveries was
comprehensive," discoveries is the object of the preposition on, and report is
the true subject of the verb was.
● Appositives: An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames or provides
additional information about another noun. It is usually set off by commas. An
appositive is not the subject.5
○ Example: "Dr. Evans, an eminent biologist, will deliver the keynote speech."
Here, an eminent biologist is an appositive renaming Dr. Evans. The subject is
Dr. Evans, and the verb is will deliver.

Identifying the true subject and verb is crucial, especially in lengthy or complex
sentences with multiple phrases and clauses.

3.1.2. Clauses: Independent and Dependent

Sentences are built from clauses. A clause is a group of words containing a subject and
a verb. There are two main types of clauses 5:
● Independent Clause: Expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a
sentence.
○ Example: "The university offers many courses."
● Dependent (or Subordinate) Clause: Contains a subject and a verb but does not
express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence. It must be
connected to an independent clause. Dependent clauses often begin with
subordinating conjunctions (e.g., because, although, when, if) or relative pronouns
(e.g., who, which, that).
○ Example: "...because it provides diverse learning opportunities." (This cannot
stand alone.)
Sentences can be classified based on the number and types of clauses they contain 5:
● Simple Sentence: Contains one independent clause.
○ Example: "The student read the assignment."
● Compound Sentence: Contains two or more independent clauses, usually joined
by a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) or a
semicolon.
○ Example: "The lecture was informative, and the students took copious notes."
● Complex Sentence: Contains one independent clause and one or more dependent
clauses.
○ Example: "Although the exam was difficult, most students performed well."
● Compound-Complex Sentence: Contains two or more independent clauses and
one or more dependent clauses.
○ Example: "Because the topic was engaging, the students asked many
questions, and the professor extended the discussion."

Understanding clause structure is fundamental to recognizing correct sentence

formation and identifying errors.

3.2. Subject-Verb Agreement

Subject-verb agreement dictates that a singular subject must have a singular verb, and
a plural subject must have a plural verb.7 This is one of the most frequently tested
concepts and a common area for errors.7 The test often complicates agreement by
inserting phrases between the subject and verb or by using less common subject forms.

The prevalence of subject-verb agreement questions, coupled with the variety of

grammatical structures that can obscure the true subject (such as prepositional
phrases, appositives, or inverted sentence order) 5, points to a common testing
mechanism. Questions are likely designed to exploit this difficulty by embedding simple
subject-verb pairs within these more complex sentence structures. Therefore, a crucial
skill for test-takers is to mentally "strip away" these obscuring elements to clearly
identify the core subject and its corresponding verb.

Key areas of subject-verb agreement include:

● Intervening Prepositional Phrases: The verb must agree with the subject of the
sentence, not with the noun in an intervening prepositional phrase.5
○ Example: "The quality of the products is excellent." (Subject: quality (singular)
agrees with is)
○ Example: "The keys to the cabinet are missing." (Subject: keys (plural) agrees
with are)
● Expressions of Quantity: With expressions like all of the, most of the, some of
the, half of the, the verb agrees with the noun that follows of.5
 ○Example: "Some of the information was useful." (Information is non-count,
takes singular verb)
○ Example: "Some of the students were late." (Students is plural, takes plural
verb)
● Inverted Structures: When the subject follows the verb (e.g., in questions,
sentences beginning with place expressions like here or there, or sentences
beginning with negative expressions), ensure the verb agrees with the subject.5
○ Example: "There are many reasons for this decision." (Subject: reasons (plural)
agrees with are)
○ Example: "Never has such an opportunity arisen." (Subject: opportunity
(singular) agrees with has)
● Indefinite Pronouns: Indefinite pronouns such as everybody, everyone,
everything, somebody, someone, something, nobody, no one, nothing, anybody,
anyone, anything, each, either, neither are singular and require singular verbs.5
○ Example: "Everyone is expected to attend."
○ Example: "Neither of the options seems appropriate."

3.3. Verb Tenses and Forms

Correct verb tense and form are essential for conveying accurate meaning regarding
time and the nature of an action.7 Test-takers must demonstrate consistency in tense
usage and select the appropriate verb forms in various grammatical constructions.5

Key aspects include:

● Basic Tenses: Understanding the formation and use of simple past, present, and
future tenses.
○ Example (Past): "She completed the research yesterday." 7
○ Example (Present): "He attends lectures regularly." 7
○ Example (Future): "They will present their findings next week." 7
● Perfect Tenses: Correctly using present perfect (has/have + past participle) for
actions completed at an unspecified past time or actions continuing to the present,
and past perfect (had + past participle) for actions completed before another past
action.5
○ Example (Present Perfect): "The university has offered this course for many
years."
○ Example (Past Perfect): "By the time the professor arrived, the students had
already started the discussion."
● Progressive (Continuous) Tenses: Using be + present participle (-ing) to indicate
ongoing actions.
○ Example (Present Progressive): "The researchers are currently analyzing the
data."
● Verb Forms After Auxiliaries:
 ○ After forms of have (has, have, had), use the past participle.5
■ Example: "They have submitted their applications."
○ After forms of be (am, is, are, was, were, been, being), use the present
participle for active progressive tenses or the past participle for passive voice.5
■ Example (Progressive): "She is writing her thesis."
■ Example (Passive): "The results were published last month."
○ After modal auxiliaries (can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would),
use the base form of the verb.5
■ Example: "Students must complete all assignments."
● Tense Consistency: Maintaining a logical sequence of tenses within a sentence or
passage.7 Avoid unnecessary shifts in tense.
● Correct Tense with Time Expressions: Using the appropriate tense with specific
time markers (e.g., yesterday with simple past, since with present perfect).5
● Active vs. Passive Voice: Understanding when to use the active voice (subject
performs the action) and the passive voice (subject receives the action). Passive
voice is formed with be + past participle.5
○ Example (Active): "The committee approved the proposal."
○ Example (Passive): "The proposal was approved by the committee."

3.4. Pronouns
Pronouns replace nouns, and their correct usage is vital for clarity and coherence.
Errors in pronoun usage are frequently tested.7

Key areas include:

● Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement: A pronoun must agree with its antecedent (the
noun it replaces) in number (singular/plural), gender (masculine/feminine/neuter),
and person (first/second/third).5
○ Example: "Each student must submit his or her (or their in contemporary
usage, though ITP may prefer his or her) assignment by Friday." (Singular
antecedent student requires singular pronoun).
○ Example: "The researchers published their findings." (Plural antecedent
researchers requires plural pronoun their).
○ A common error involves using a plural pronoun with a singular indefinite
pronoun antecedent like "everyone" or "each".7 Correct: "Everyone should bring
his or her own materials."
● Subject and Object Pronouns: Use subject pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we, they)
when the pronoun is the subject of a verb. Use object pronouns (me, you, him, her,
it, us, them) when the pronoun is the object of a verb or a preposition. 5
○ Example (Subject): "She and I conducted the experiment."
○ Example (Object of verb): "The professor praised him."
○ Example (Object of preposition): "The information was shared between you and
 me."
● Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns: Distinguish between possessive
adjectives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their), which modify a noun, and possessive
pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs), which stand alone and replace a
noun.5
○ Example (Possessive Adjective): "This is her laboratory."
○ Example (Possessive Pronoun): "The laboratory is hers."
● Clear Pronoun Reference: Ensure that every pronoun clearly refers to a specific
antecedent to avoid ambiguity.

3.5. Clauses in Detail

A deeper understanding of different clause types and their connectors is essential, as
these structures are frequently the focus of questions.

3.5.1. Noun Clauses

A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions as a noun within a sentence. It can
act as a subject, an object of a verb, or an object of a preposition.5 Noun clauses
typically begin with connectors such as that, what, whatever, when, where, why, how,
who, whom, whose, whoever, whomever, whichever, whether, or if. Importantly, the
word order within a noun clause is usually subject + verb, even if the main sentence is a
question.
● Connectors: what, when, where, why, how, whether, if, that
● Connector/Subjects: Some connectors can also function as the subject of the
noun clause itself: who, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever.5

Examples:
● As object of a verb: "I know what you did." 5 (The noun clause what you did is the
object of the verb know.)
● As subject of the sentence: "That the project was successful pleased the
committee." (The noun clause That the project was successful is the subject of the
verb pleased.)
● As object of a preposition: "She is concerned about how she will finish the work."
● With connector as subject: "We understand what happened." 5 (What is the
connector and the subject of happened.)
● With connector as subject (noun clause as sentence subject): "What happened
was unfortunate." 5

3.5.2. Adjective Clauses

An adjective clause (or relative clause) is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or
pronoun. It describes or provides more information about the noun/pronoun it follows. 5
Adjective clauses are typically introduced by relative pronouns such as who, whom,
whose, which, or that, or by relative adverbs where or when.
● Connectors: who (people, subject), whom (people, object), whose (possession),
which (things, subject/object), that (people/things, subject/object), where (places),
when (times).
● Connector/Subjects: The relative pronouns who, which, and that can also function
as the subject of the adjective clause.5

Examples:
● "The scientist who won the award is highly respected." (who won the award
modifies scientist; who is the subject of won.) 5
● "This is the book which I recommended." (which I recommended modifies book;
which is the object of recommended.) 5
● "The city where I was born has changed significantly." (where I was born modifies
city.)

3.5.3. Adverb Clauses

An adverb clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb. It modifies a verb,
an adjective, or another adverb in the main clause, providing information about time,
place, cause, purpose, condition, contrast, or manner.5 Adverb clauses begin with
subordinating conjunctions.

Common Subordinating Conjunctions:

● Time: when, while, before, after, since, as, as soon as, until, once
● Cause/Reason: because, since, as
● Purpose: so that, in order that
● Condition: if, unless, provided that, as long as
● Contrast/Concession: although, though, even though, while, whereas
● Place: where, wherever
● Manner: as, as if, as though

Punctuation: When an adverb clause begins a sentence, it is followed by a comma. No

comma is usually needed if the adverb clause follows the independent clause.10
● Example: "Because it was raining, the game was postponed." 5
● Example: "The game was postponed because it was raining."

3.5.4. Reduced Clauses (Adjective & Adverb)

Adjective and adverb clauses can sometimes be reduced to phrases, making sentences
more concise. This is a common area for testing.
 ● Reduced Adjective Clauses 5:
An adjective clause can be reduced if its subject is the same as the noun it modifies
AND the relative pronoun connector (who, which, that) is the subject of the clause.
1. If the adjective clause contains the verb be, omit the connector/subject and the
be verb.
■ Full: "The man who is talking to John is my professor."
■ Reduced: "The man talking to John is my professor." 5
■ Full: "The report, which was written by the committee, is now available."
■ Reduced: "The report, written by the committee, is now available." 5
2. If the adjective clause does not contain the verb be, omit the connector/subject
and change the verb to its -ing form (present participle).
■ Full: "The ideas that appear in this book are revolutionary."
■ Reduced: "The ideas appearing in this book are revolutionary."
● Reduced Adverb Clauses 5:
An adverb clause can be reduced if the subject of the adverb clause is the same as
the subject of the main clause.
1. Omit the subject of the dependent clause and the be verb (if present). Keep the
subordinating conjunction.
■ Full: "While I was walking home, I saw an accident."
■ Reduced: "While walking home, I saw an accident."
■ Full: "Although she was rather unwell, the speaker delivered an excellent
presentation." 5
■ Reduced: "Although rather unwell, the speaker delivered an excellent
presentation." 5
2. If there is no be verb in the adverb clause, omit the subject and change the verb
to its -ing form. Keep the subordinating conjunction.
■ Full: "Before she left the house, she checked all the windows."
■ Reduced: "Before leaving the house, she checked all the windows." Note:
Adverb clauses of cause (e.g., beginning with because, as, since) generally
cannot be reduced in this way.5

The advanced grammatical concepts such as various clause types, their reduced forms,
and inversions (discussed later) are prime candidates for testing in both Sentence
Completion and Error Identification. These areas allow for the creation of questions that
test subtle understanding of formal English. Success often depends on recognizing the
incomplete pattern (in Part A) or the subtle error in its formation (in Part B). Because the
questions are often presented without extensive context 2, mastery of these structures
through pattern recognition is even more critical. The test-taker must rely purely on their
knowledge of the grammatical pattern itself, rather than deriving clues from surrounding
text.
3.6. Parallel Structure
Parallel structure (or parallelism) requires that words, phrases, or clauses joined by
coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) or used in lists, series, or
comparisons be grammatically the same or similar in form.7 This is a frequently tested
concept and a common source of errors.5
● With Coordinate Conjunctions 5:
○ Incorrect: "She enjoys reading, to hike, and painting."
○ Correct: "She enjoys reading, hiking, and painting." (All gerunds) 7
○ Correct: "She enjoys to read, to hike, and to paint." (All infinitives)
● With Paired Conjunctions (Correlative Conjunctions) 5: Paired conjunctions
such as both...and, either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also require parallel
structure after each part of the conjunction.
○ Incorrect: "The project requires not only careful planning but also to execute it
efficiently."
○ Correct: "The project requires not only careful planning but also efficient
execution." (Noun phrase // noun phrase)
○ Correct: "The project requires not only to be planned carefully but also to be
executed efficiently." (Infinitive phrase // infinitive phrase)
● In Comparisons 5: Elements being compared should be grammatically parallel.
○ Incorrect: "To study is better than sleeping."
○ Correct: "To study is better than to sleep." OR "Studying is better than
sleeping."

3.7. Modifiers
Modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses that describe or provide more information
about other words in a sentence. Correct use and placement of modifiers are essential
for clarity.7 Misplaced or dangling modifiers are common errors tested.7
● Adjectives and Adverbs 5:
○ Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns.
■ Example: "It was a difficult exam."
○ Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They often answer
questions like how, when, where, or to what extent. Many adverbs end in -ly.
■ Example: "She completed the exam quickly." (modifies verb completed)
■ Example: "It was an extremely difficult exam." (modifies adjective difficult)
● Adjectives After Linking Verbs 5: Linking verbs (e.g., be, become, seem, appear,
look, feel, taste, smell, sound) are followed by an adjective (predicate adjective)
that describes the subject, not an adverb.
○ Incorrect: "The solution appears logically."
○ Correct: "The solution appears logical." 5
● Position of Adjectives and Adverbs 5:
 ○Single-word adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify.
■ Example: "a comprehensive review"
○ Adverbs can appear in various positions, but they should not be placed
between a verb and its direct object.
■ Incorrect: "He reads often books."
■ Correct: "He often reads books." OR "He reads books often."
● -ED vs. -ING Adjectives 5:
○ -ING adjectives (e.g., interesting, boring, confusing) describe the quality of
someone or something that causes a feeling or effect (active meaning).
■ Example: "The lecture was boring." (The lecture caused boredom.)
■ Example: "The cleaning woman worked efficiently." (The woman performs
the action of cleaning.) 5
○ -ED adjectives (e.g., interested, bored, confused) describe a feeling or effect
experienced by someone (passive meaning).
■ Example: "The students were bored by the lecture." (The students
experienced boredom.)
■ Example: "The cleaned car looked new." (The car received the action of
cleaning.) 5
● Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers 7: A modifier should be placed as close as
possible to the word it modifies to avoid confusion.
○ Misplaced Modifier Example:
■ Incorrect: "The patient discussed his symptoms with the doctor suffering
from insomnia." (Is the doctor suffering from insomnia?)
■ Correct: "The patient suffering from insomnia discussed his symptoms
with the doctor."
○ Dangling Modifier Example (often a participial phrase at the beginning of a
sentence that doesn't logically modify the subject of the main clause):
■ Incorrect: "Walking through the park, the trees were beautiful." (The trees
were not walking.)
■ Correct: "Walking through the park, I thought the trees were beautiful." OR
"As I was walking through the park, the trees were beautiful."

3.8. Articles (a, an, the)

Articles are determiners that specify whether a noun is general or specific. Their correct
usage can be challenging for ESL learners and is frequently tested.7
● Use of a/an (Indefinite Articles) 5:
○ Used with singular countable nouns.
○ a is used before words beginning with a consonant sound (e.g., a book, a
university - university starts with a 'y' sound).
○ an is used before words beginning with a vowel sound (e.g., an apple, an hour -
 hour starts with a vowel sound as 'h' is silent).
○ Used to refer to a general or non-specific noun.
■ Example: "She wants to buy a car." (any car, not a specific one) 5
● Use of the (Definite Article) 5:
○ Used with singular and plural countable nouns, and with uncountable nouns.
○ Used to refer to a specific noun that has already been mentioned or is
understood from the context, or is unique.
■ Example: "She bought a car yesterday. The car is red." (Specific car,
already mentioned)
■ Example: "The sun rises in the east." (Unique)
● No Article (Zero Article):
○ Used with plural countable nouns to make general statements.
■ Example: "Computers are useful tools." (General statement about all
computers)
○ Used with most uncountable nouns to make general statements.
■ Example: "Information is valuable." (General statement about information)

3.9. Prepositions
Prepositions (e.g., in, on, at, for, from, to, with, by, about) show relationships between
words in a sentence, often indicating location, time, direction, or manner. Incorrect or
omitted prepositions are common errors.7
● Common Prepositional Errors 5:
○ Using the wrong preposition:
■ Incorrect: "She is good in mathematics."
■ Correct: "She is good at mathematics." 8
○ Omitting a necessary preposition:
■ Incorrect: "They discussed about the problem." (Discuss does not take
'about' before a direct object)
■ Correct: "They discussed the problem." OR "They talked about the
problem."
● Idiomatic Usage 5: Many verbs, adjectives, and nouns are characteristically
followed by specific prepositions (collocations).
○ Examples: rely on, interested in, capable of, reason for, aware of.
○ Memorizing common collocations is crucial.

3.10. Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparatives are used to compare two things, while superlatives are used to compare
three or more things, or to indicate the highest degree of a quality.5
● Formation 5:
○ Comparatives:
 ■ One-syllable adjectives/adverbs: add -er (e.g., taller, faster).
■ Two-syllable adjectives ending in -y: change -y to -ier (e.g., happier, easier).
■ Most adjectives/adverbs of two or more syllables: use more/less (e.g., more
beautiful, less expensive).
○ Superlatives:
■ One-syllable adjectives/adverbs: add -est (e.g., tallest, fastest).
■ Two-syllable adjectives ending in -y: change -y to -iest (e.g., happiest,
easiest).
■ Most adjectives/adverbs of two or more syllables: use most/least (e.g., most
beautiful, least expensive).
○ Irregular Forms: good/better/best, bad/worse/worst, far/further/furthest or
far/farther/farthest.
● Usage:
○ Comparatives are often followed by than.
■ Example: "This book is more interesting than that one." 5
○ Superlatives are often preceded by the.
■ Example: "This is the most interesting book I have ever read." 5
● The "-er, -er" Structure (Double Comparative) 5: Used to show a proportional
relationship.
○ Example: "The more you practice, the better you will become."

3.11. Inversion
Inversion refers to reversing the normal subject-verb word order. It is used in specific
grammatical situations, often for emphasis or in formal written English.5
● In Questions 5: The auxiliary verb (or be verb) comes before the subject.
○ Example: "Is she ready?" "Where did they go?"
● After Place Expressions 5: When an expression of place begins a sentence and is
essential to its meaning, the verb may precede the subject.
○ Example: "Here comes the bus." "Beyond the mountains lies a fertile valley."
10

● With Negative or Almost Negative Words 5: When sentences begin with negative
or restrictive adverbs/expressions (e.g., never, rarely, seldom, hardly, scarcely,
barely, no sooner, not only, only then, under no circumstances), the subject and
auxiliary/modal verb are inverted.
○ Example: "Never have I seen such a sight." 10
○ Example: "Rarely does he miss a deadline." 5
● In Some Conditional Clauses (without if) 5: In formal conditionals, if can be
omitted and the subject and auxiliary verb (had, should, were) inverted.
○ Example: "Had I known the truth, I would have acted differently." (Instead of "If
I had known...")
 ○Example: "Were she here, she would help." (Instead of "If she were here...")
● With Comparatives (Optional and Formal) 5:
○ Example: "My sister spends more hours in the office than does John." (More
common: "...than John does.")

Understanding these core grammatical concepts is paramount. Many test questions are
designed to see if the test-taker can correctly form these structures (in Part A) or identify
subtle errors in their formation (in Part B).

Module 4: Strategic Approaches to Part A: Sentence Completion

(Structure Questions 1-15)
Part A of the Structure and Written Expression section requires test-takers to choose
the one word or phrase that correctly completes an incomplete sentence. Success in
this part hinges on a systematic approach to analyzing the sentence and the provided
options.

4.1. Systematic Approach to Sentence Completion

A methodical strategy is essential for efficiently and accurately answering Sentence
Completion questions.
1. Study the Sentence First: Read the incomplete sentence carefully to understand
its existing structure and meaning. The primary goal is to determine what
grammatical element (e.g., subject, verb, connector, phrase) is missing to make it a
complete and correct English sentence.5
2. Analyze Each Answer Choice in Context: Evaluate each of the four answer
choices based on how well it fits into the blank and completes the sentence
grammatically and logically.5
3. Avoid Evaluating Choices in Isolation: A common pitfall is to judge an answer
choice solely on its own grammatical correctness. Incorrect options are often
grammatically sound by themselves but create an error when inserted into the
specific sentence provided.5 The critical step is to see how each option interacts
with the rest of the sentence. This addresses a key aspect of how distractors are
designed: they are often plausible phrases or clauses that only become incorrect
when integrated into the sentence stem, leading to issues like subject-verb
disagreement, faulty parallelism, or incorrect tense usage.

Example Walkthrough:
Sentence: "The committee members, after _______ the proposal, will vote on its adoption."
What's missing? The phrase "after _______ the proposal" needs a verb form that can follow
"after" and relate to "committee members." Since "committee members" is the subject of "will
vote," they are also the ones who will perform the action related to the proposal.
Consider options:
(A) they reviewing
(B) to review
(C) reviewed
(D) reviewing
Analysis:
(A) "after they reviewing" - Incorrect. "they" would need a finite verb, not a participle alone.
(B) "after to review" - Incorrect. "after" is a preposition and is typically followed by a gerund (-ing
form) or a noun phrase, not an infinitive.
(C) "after reviewed" - Incorrect. While "reviewed" is a past participle, "after" usually takes a
gerund if an action is implied. "After the proposal was reviewed" would be possible, but that's
not the structure here.
(D) "after reviewing" - Correct. "reviewing" is a gerund, and "after reviewing the proposal"
correctly forms a prepositional phrase indicating the action performed by the committee
members before voting.
4.2. Identifying What's Missing
The first step in analyzing the sentence is to identify the missing grammatical
component. Common missing elements include:
● A Subject: The sentence may lack a noun or pronoun to perform the action.
○ Example: "_______ is essential for academic success." (Missing: A noun like
"Diligent study" or a noun clause like "That students study diligently")
● A Verb: The sentence may have a subject but no action or state of being.
○ Example: "The intricate network of canals _______ the city with water."
(Missing: A verb like "supplies")
● Both a Subject and a Verb: A significant portion of the sentence might be missing.
● A Connector: The sentence might have two clauses that need to be properly
joined by a coordinating conjunction, subordinating conjunction, or relative pronoun.
○ Example: "The experiment was successful _______ it was carefully planned."
(Missing: A subordinating conjunction like "because")
● Part of a Specific Grammatical Pattern: The blank might require an element to
complete a known structure, such as a participial phrase, an appositive, an infinitive
phrase, or a specific part of an idiomatic expression.
○ Example: "The student, _______ to finish the assignment on time, worked late
into the night." (Missing: A present participle like "hoping" or "trying")

4.3. Common Question Patterns in Part A

Recognizing common patterns in Part A questions can significantly speed up the
answering process. Many questions are designed to test the correct formation of the
complex grammatical structures detailed in Module 3. Success often depends on
identifying the incomplete pattern and selecting the option that correctly completes it.
● Subject-Verb Agreement: Questions often test whether the chosen option creates
correct agreement between the subject and verb, especially when phrases
 separate them or when the subject is unusual (e.g., a gerund or noun clause).10
○ Example: "The discovery of new antibiotics _______ crucial in combating
resistant bacteria." (A) are (B) is (C) they are (D) being Explanation: The subject
is "discovery" (singular), so the verb must be "is."
● Objects of Prepositions vs. Subjects: Distractors might try to make an object of a
preposition appear to be the subject.9
○ Example: "The books on the top shelf _______ to be dusted." (A) needs (B)
needing (C) need (D) is needing Explanation: The subject is "books" (plural),
not "shelf." So, the plural verb "need" is correct.
● Participles (Present and Past): Questions may require choosing the correct
participial form (-ing or -ed) to act as an adjective or part of a verb phrase. 9
○ Example: "The theories _______ in the lecture were quite complex." (A)
discussing (B) discussed (C) were discussed (D) did discuss Explanation:
"discussed" is a past participle acting as an adjective modifying "theories" (the
theories that were discussed).
● Connectors (Coordinating, Adverb, Noun Clause, Adjective Clause): A
significant number of questions involve choosing the correct word or phrase to link
clauses or sentence elements appropriately.5
○ Example (Noun Clause Connector): "The professor asked _______ the
students had understood the concept." 9 (A) that (B) if (C) what (D) who
Explanation: "if" (or "whether") is used to introduce a noun clause representing
a yes/no question.
○ Example (Adjective Clause Connector): "The scientist _______ research led to
the breakthrough received an award." (A) who (B) which (C) whose (D) whom
Explanation: "whose" is the possessive relative pronoun needed here
("research of the scientist").
● Inverted Structures: Questions may test inversion after place expressions or
negative/restrictive words.5
○ Example (Inversion after Negative): "Seldom _______ such a compelling
argument." (A) we have heard (B) have we heard (C) we heard (D) did we
heard Explanation: After "Seldom," the auxiliary verb "have" must precede the
subject "we." "Heard" is the past participle.

By familiarizing oneself with these patterns and the systematic approach outlined, test-
takers can navigate Part A questions with greater confidence and accuracy.

Module 5: Strategic Approaches to Part B: Error Identification

(Written Expression Questions 16-40)
Part B of the Structure and Written Expression section shifts the task from completing
sentences to identifying errors. In each of the 25 questions, four words or phrases are
underlined, and the test-taker must choose the one underlined part that makes the
sentence grammatically incorrect.1

5.1. Developing an "Error Scanning" Mindset

The key to success in Part B is to develop an efficient "error scanning" mindset. This
involves:
1. Reading the Entire Sentence First: Before focusing on the underlined parts, read
the whole sentence to grasp its overall meaning and structure. This contextual
understanding can often help in spotting errors that might not be apparent when
looking at underlined segments in isolation.
2. Systematically Examining Each Underlined Part: After the initial read-through,
look closely at each of the four underlined options (A, B, C, D). Consider whether
each part is grammatically correct within the context of that specific sentence.

The errors in Part B are typically rule-based rather than meaning-based in the sense
that an ungrammatical sentence might still be somewhat understandable. The focus is
squarely on adherence to the conventions of standard written English. Therefore,
practicing error identification with a focus on the types of errors commonly tested will be
more effective than just general reading. Students need to cultivate an ability to
recognize these specific error categories quickly.

5.2. Systematic Checklist for Error Spotting

Having a mental checklist of common error types can make the scanning process more
systematic and effective. The "10 Points Checklist of Problem Areas on TOEFL Section
2" provides a useful framework 11, which can be augmented with other commonly
identified error types.

Table 2: Common Grammatical Error Checklist for Part B (Error Identification)

Error Category Common Quick Check Tip

Manifestation/Example of
Error (Incorrect part
italicized)

1. Subject and Verb "The students in the class they Does the sentence have one
Presence 11 are studying hard." clear subject and one main
(Redundant subject) verb for each clause?

2. Subject-Verb Agreement 7 "The list of required books are Find the true subject; ignore
 on the syllabus." (List is intervening phrases. Does the
singular) verb number match the subject
number?

3. Full Subordination/Clause "Because the weather was Are dependent and

Connection 11 bad, so we stayed indoors." independent clauses correctly
(Redundant connector) linked? Are there missing or
redundant connectors?

4. Verbals (Participles, "The boring students left the Is the -ing/-ed form correct as
Gerunds, Infinitives) 5 lecture early." (Should be an adjective? Is the
bored if students felt boredom) infinitive/gerund form correct
/ "He enjoys to swim." (Enjoy after the main verb?
takes gerund)

5. Pronoun (Form, "Each candidate must submit Does the pronoun agree with
Agreement, Reference) 7 their application." (Each is its antecedent in
singular) / "Mary told Susan number/gender? Is it the
that she needed to leave." correct case
(Ambiguous she) (subject/object/possessive)? Is
the reference clear?

6. Word Form "She spoke very quick to the Is the correct part of speech
(Adj/Adv/Noun/Verb) 5 audience." (Should be adverb used for its function in the
quickly) / "The develop of new sentence?
technology is rapid." (Should
be noun development)

7. Word Order 11 "The man tall with the hat is Are adjectives, adverbs, and
my uncle." (Adjective usually other sentence elements in
before noun) / "He explained their standard English
clearly the process." (Adv positions?
often not between V & Obj)

8. Parallel Structure 7 "He is skilled at writing reports, Are items in a list, series, or
giving presentations, and to comparison in the same
manage projects." (Should be grammatical form?
managing)

9. Unnecessary "The reason is because he Are there words or phrases

Repetition/Redundancy 11 was late." (Reason implies that mean the same thing and
 because) / "It was an are unnecessarily repetitive?
unexpected surprise."

10. Correct Usage (Idioms, "She is capable to do the Is the correct preposition used
Prepositions, Articles, work." (Capable of doing) / "He with a verb/adj? Is an article
Confused Words) 5 is different than his brother." missing/incorrect? Is a
(Different from) commonly confused word
misused?

When approaching a Part B question:

1. Read the entire sentence.
2. Mentally (or by quickly re-reading) scan each underlined part, checking it against
these common error types.
3. If an error isn't immediately obvious, consider each underlined part in relation to the
non-underlined parts of the sentence.

5.3. Understanding Distractor Design in Part B

In Part B, three of the four underlined parts are grammatically correct within the
sentence's context. The incorrect option often contains a subtle error related to a
specific grammar rule, rather than an obvious mistake like a misspelling.2 Test
designers craft these errors to be plausible, meaning they might look correct at a quick
glance or if the rule is not fully understood. The challenge lies in distinguishing the
single incorrect element from the three correct ones.

Module 6: Navigating Common Pitfalls and Tricky Grammar

Beyond the general rules, certain word pairs, idiomatic expressions, and complex
grammatical structures are notoriously tricky for ESL learners and are frequently
targeted in the TOEFL ITP. Awareness of these pitfalls is key to avoiding common
mistakes.

6.1. Frequently Confused Word Pairs and Usage

This section highlights words and phrases that are often misused. Mastering their
correct application is crucial for both Sentence Completion and Error Identification
questions. Many of these are not about obscure rules but common usage errors or
distinctions that can be particularly confusing.5
● Make vs. Do 5:
○ Make generally refers to creating, constructing, or producing something. (e.g.,
"make a cake," "make a decision," "make an effort").
○ Do generally refers to performing an action, work, or general activities. (e.g.,
 "do homework," "do research," "do a favor").
○ Example Error: "She needs to make more research on the topic." (Correct: do)
● Like vs. Alike vs. Unlike vs. Dislike 5:
○ Like (preposition): similar to. (e.g., "She is like her mother.")
○ Alike (adjective/adverb): similar. (e.g., "The two sisters are very alike." "They
dress alike.")
○ Unlike (preposition): different from. (e.g., "Unlike his brother, he is very
talkative.")
○ Like/Dislike (verbs): to find pleasant/unpleasant. (e.g., "I like coffee, but I dislike
tea.")
● Other vs. Another vs. Others 5:
○ Another: an additional one; a different one (singular countable nouns). (e.g., "I
need another pen.")
○ Other: additional ones; different ones (plural countable nouns or uncountable
nouns). Often used with the, some, any. (e.g., "Where are the other students?"
"Do you have any other information?")
○ Others (pronoun): other people or things. (e.g., "Some students agree, but
others do not.")
● Affect vs. Effect:
○ Affect (verb): to influence or change. (e.g., "The weather will affect our plans.")
○ Effect (noun): a result or consequence. (e.g., "The effect of the storm was
devastating.") (Occasionally, effect can be a verb meaning "to bring about": "to
effect change.")
● Its vs. It's:
○ Its (possessive pronoun): belonging to it. (e.g., "The cat licked its paw.")
○ It's (contraction): it is or it has. (e.g., "It's a beautiful day." "It's been a long
time.")
● There vs. Their vs. They're:
○ There (adverb of place; expletive): (e.g., "The book is over there." "There are
many solutions.")
○ Their (possessive pronoun): belonging to them. (e.g., "The students submitted
their assignments.")
○ They're (contraction): they are. (e.g., "They're studying for the exam.")
● Fewer vs. Less 5:
○ Fewer: used with countable nouns. (e.g., "Fewer students attended the
lecture.")
○ Less: used with uncountable nouns. (e.g., "There is less time than we thought.")
● Much vs. Many 5:
○ Many: used with countable nouns. (e.g., "Many people believe...")
○ Much: used with uncountable nouns. (e.g., "There isn't much sugar left.")
● Specific Prepositional Errors 5:
 ○ responsible for (not "responsible of")
○ different from (not "different than," though "than" is common in informal AmE,
"from" is standard)
○ consist of (not "consist by")
● "Since then" vs. "After that" 14:
○ "Since then" is used with the present perfect for actions/states starting in the
past and continuing. (e.g., "He moved here in 2010 and has lived here since
then.")
○ "After that" is used for actions that started and finished in the past. (e.g., "He
graduated, and after that, he found a job.")
● "Boring" vs. "Bored" (-ing vs. -ed adjectives) 14:
○ Things are boring; people feel bored. (e.g., "The movie was boring, so I felt
bored.")
● "Every day" vs. "Everyday" 14:
○ "Everyday" (adjective): common, ordinary. (e.g., "These are everyday
problems.")
○ "Every day" (adverb phrase): each day. (e.g., "She studies every day.")
● "Economic" vs. "Economical" 14:
○ "Economic" relates to the economy. (e.g., "economic policy")
○ "Economical" means saving money, not wasteful. (e.g., "an economical car")
● "Access" (verb) vs. "Access to" (noun phrase) 14:
○ Verb: "You can access the files online."
○ Noun: "Students have access to the library."
● "Stopped to VERB" vs. "Stopped VERBing" 14:
○ "Stopped to VERB": paused one activity to do another. (e.g., "He stopped to tie
his shoe.")
○ "Stopped VERBing": ceased an activity. (e.g., "He stopped smoking.")
● Using "Although" and "But" Together 14: Avoid using both in the same clause to
show contrast; choose one.
○ Incorrect: "Although it was raining, but we went out."
○ Correct: "Although it was raining, we went out." OR "It was raining, but we went
out."

6.2. Tricky Grammatical Structures Revisited

Some grammatical structures are inherently more complex and thus more likely to be
tested or to be sources of error. The score descriptors for the C1 proficiency level
indicate an ability to understand "less familiar verb tenses, subjunctive mood and
reduced clauses," and to recognize "different levels of abstraction or formality in
choices".15 This suggests that higher-level questions will specifically target these
nuanced areas. Distractor options for these questions might involve subtle mismatches
in formality or present nearly correct but slightly flawed complex structures, designed to
trap those with only partial mastery.
● Complex Passive Voice: Passive voice with modals, perfect tenses, or in
subordinate clauses can be tricky.
○ Example: "The research, which is believed to have been completed last year,
will be published soon."
● Conditional Sentences (especially with Inversion):
○ Type 1 (Real Present/Future): "If it rains, the picnic will be canceled."
○ Type 2 (Unreal Present/Future): "If I had more time, I would travel."
(Subjunctive had)
○ Type 3 (Unreal Past): "If she had studied harder, she would have passed."
○ Inverted Conditionals: "Had she studied harder, she would have passed." 5
● Subjunctive Mood: Often used after verbs of demand, recommendation, request,
suggestion (e.g., demand, insist, recommend, suggest, ask) followed by that, and in
certain fixed expressions. The subjunctive form is typically the base form of the
verb for all persons.
○ Example: "The committee recommended that the proposal be accepted." (Not
"is" or "was")
○ Example: "It is essential that he arrive on time."
● Deeply Embedded Clauses: Sentences with multiple nested clauses (e.g., a noun
clause acting as the subject of a main clause, which itself contains an adjective
clause) require careful parsing.
○ Example: "That the scientist who made the discovery was initially ignored
is a fact often overlooked in historical accounts."
● Reduced Clauses in Complex Contexts: Recognizing correctly and incorrectly
reduced adjective and adverb clauses when they are part of longer, more intricate
sentences.
○ Example (Error in Part B): "The theories, presenting in the seminar, were based
on extensive research." (Should be: presented)

A strong grasp of these areas will prepare test-takers for the more challenging
questions designed to differentiate higher proficiency levels.

Module 7: Overall Test-Taking and Time Management Strategies

Beyond grammatical knowledge, strategic test-taking and effective time management
are crucial for maximizing performance on the Structure and Written Expression section.

7.1. Effective Pacing Across the Section

With an average of only 37.5 seconds per question, pacing is critical.2 It is unwise to get
bogged down on a single difficult question, as this can compromise the ability to answer
subsequent, potentially easier, questions.3
A general pattern of difficulty exists within each part of the section:
● Part A (Sentence Completion, Questions 1-15): Questions 1-5 are typically the
easiest, with difficulty increasing towards questions 11-15, which are often the most
challenging in this part.9
● Part B (Error Identification, Questions 16-40): Similarly, questions 16-20 tend to
be easier, while questions 36-40 are usually the most difficult.9

This pattern suggests a strategy: aim to answer the earlier, easier questions in each
part quickly but accurately, thereby banking a few seconds that can be allocated to the
more complex questions later. However, caution is advised against rushing through
easy questions, as this can lead to careless mistakes. The goal is a balance of speed
and precision.

7.2. The Power of Process of Elimination (POE)

Process of Elimination is a highly valuable strategy for multiple-choice questions,
especially under time pressure.3
● For Part A (Sentence Completion): After reading the sentence stem, evaluate
each option. Eliminate choices that are clearly grammatically incorrect when
inserted into the blank, or that do not make logical sense in the context of the
sentence.9
● For Part B (Error Identification): If the error is not immediately obvious, try to
identify underlined parts that seem correct. This can help narrow down the
possibilities.

Even if only one or two options can be confidently eliminated, POE significantly
increases the probability of selecting the correct answer through an educated guess.18

7.3. Making Educated Guesses

Since there is no penalty for incorrect answers on the TOEFL ITP, it is always
advantageous to answer every question, even if it means guessing.4 The combination of
"no penalty for guessing" and the severe time pressure makes "educated guessing" a
critical skill, not merely a last resort. Test-takers must have a strategy for questions they
cannot answer confidently within the allotted time. This involves more than random
selection; it means teaching students to quickly assess remaining options for plausibility
based on partial knowledge, common distractor patterns, or general test-savviness. 18

If completely unsure after attempting POE:

● Grammatical Consistency: In Part B, look for an option that might disrupt the
grammatical flow or pattern established by the non-underlined parts of the
sentence. Conversely, in Part A, choose an option that creates a grammatically
 sound and common English pattern.
● Length/Completeness (Part A - use with caution): Sometimes, particularly in
Sentence Completion, the longest or most grammatically complete-looking answer
choice might be correct, as it may provide a necessary subject and verb or
complete a complex phrase. However, this is not a reliable standalone rule and
should be used sparingly.19
● Trust Your "Ear" (with training): If a test-taker has significant exposure to
English, an option might "sound" more correct or incorrect. This intuition can be
helpful but should be developed and validated through extensive practice with
TOEFL-like material.18
● Avoid Extremes and Absolutes: In some multiple-choice questions (though less
directly applicable to pure grammar choices unless an option describes a rule in
absolute terms), answers containing words like "always," "never," "all," or "none"
can often be incorrect because they make sweeping generalizations.18
● Similar or Opposite Choices: If two answer choices are very similar in structure or
meaning, or if they are direct opposites, one of them might be the correct answer or
the error.18 This can help focus attention.
● Keyword Matches (Part A): Sometimes an option in Part A will contain keywords
or related concepts that logically fit with the sentence stem.19

7.4. Importance of Official Practice Materials

The most effective way to prepare for the types of questions, the level of difficulty, and
the time constraints of the Structure and Written Expression section is to use official
ETS (Educational Testing Service) practice materials. These include Official Guides,
full-length practice tests, and sample questions.20 These resources are invaluable
because they are created by the test makers and most accurately reflect the content
and style of the actual TOEFL ITP.

Module 8: Practice Makes Perfect: Sample Questions and

Explanations
This module provides sample questions similar to those found in the TOEFL ITP
Structure and Written Expression section, along with detailed explanations to illustrate
the application of the grammatical concepts and strategies discussed. The explanations
aim to go beyond simply stating the correct answer by detailing why an option is correct
or incorrect, referencing specific grammar rules. This approach is more instructive than
merely showing the corrected sentence.22

8.1. Sample Sentence Completion (Part A) Questions with Detailed Walkthroughs

Question 1:
Geysers have sometimes been compared to volcanoes __________ they both emit hot liquids
from below Earth's surface.
(A) despite
(B) because
(C) in regard to
(D) as a result of
Walkthrough:
● Analyze Sentence Stem: The sentence presents a comparison
("Geysers...compared to volcanoes") and then a reason or cause for this
comparison ("they both emit hot liquids..."). We need a connector that indicates
cause or reason.
● Evaluate Answer Choices:
○ (A) despite: This connector indicates contrast, which doesn't fit the logic.
○ (B) because: This connector indicates cause/reason. "Geysers...compared to
volcanoes because they both emit..." This makes logical and grammatical
sense.
○ (C) in regard to: This phrase means "concerning" or "about," which doesn't
express the causal relationship needed.
○ (D) as a result of: This phrase typically precedes a noun phrase indicating a
cause, not a full clause explaining a reason. (e.g., "as a result of the eruption").
● Correct Answer: (B)
● Grammar Rule Tested: Use of subordinating conjunctions to show cause (adverb
clause of reason).

Question 2:
During the early period of ocean navigation, __________ any need for sophisticated
instruments and techniques.
(A) so that hardly
(B) when there hardly was
(C) hardly was
(D) there was hardly
Walkthrough:
● Analyze Sentence Stem: The sentence starts with a prepositional phrase
indicating time ("During the early period of ocean navigation"). The main clause is
missing its subject and verb structure. The phrase "any need for sophisticated
instruments..." suggests a lack or scarcity.
● Evaluate Answer Choices:
○ (A) so that hardly: "so that" introduces a clause of result or purpose, and
"hardly" is awkwardly placed. This doesn't form a coherent main clause.
○ (B) when there hardly was: "when" would introduce a dependent adverb clause,
but the sentence needs a main clause.
○ (C) hardly was: This is an inverted structure. While inversion with "hardly" can
 occur at the beginning of a clause (e.g., "Hardly was there any need..."), the
blank here follows an introductory phrase, and a standard subject-verb order is
expected for the main clause.
○ (D) there was hardly: This provides the expletive subject "there," the verb "was,"
and the adverb "hardly" modifying "any need." "There was hardly any need"
forms a grammatically correct and logical main clause.
● Correct Answer: (D)
● Grammar Rule Tested: Sentence structure with expletive "there"; correct word
order.

8.2. Sample Error Identification (Part B) Questions with Detailed Walkthroughs

Question 1:
Guppies are (A) sometimes (B) call rainbow fish (C) due to the (D) bright colors of the males.
Walkthrough:
● Read Entire Sentence: Understand the basic statement about guppies.
● Apply Error Scanning Checklist & Examine Underlined Parts:
○ (A) sometimes: This adverb of frequency is correctly placed and used.
○ (B) call: The sentence structure "Guppies are... call" suggests a passive voice is
intended (guppies are named/called by others). The passive voice requires a
form of "be" + past participle. "Call" is the base form.
○ (C) due to: This prepositional phrase correctly introduces a reason.
○ (D) bright colors: This noun phrase is grammatically correct.
● Identify Error: (B) call is incorrect.
● Correction: It should be "called" (past participle) to form the passive voice:
"Guppies are sometimes called rainbow fish..."
● Grammar Rule Tested: Passive voice formation.

Question 2:
(A) Serving several (B) term in the Congress, Shirley Chisholm (C) became a (D) respected
political figure.
Walkthrough:
● Read Entire Sentence: Understand the sentence describes Shirley Chisholm's
career.
● Apply Error Scanning Checklist & Examine Underlined Parts:
○ (A) Serving: This present participle correctly begins a participial phrase
modifying Shirley Chisholm.
○ (B) term: "Several" is a quantifier indicating more than one, so the noun it
modifies should be plural. "Term" is singular.
○ (C) became: This simple past tense verb is appropriate for the context.
○ (D) respected: This past participle is correctly used as an adjective modifying
"political figure."
 ● Identify Error: (B) term is incorrect.
● Correction: It should be "terms" (plural noun) to agree with "several": "Serving
several terms in the Congress..."
● Grammar Rule Tested: Noun number agreement with quantifiers.

The following table links key grammatical structures to how they typically appear in both
Part A and Part B, aiding in pattern recognition.

Table 3: Key Grammatical Structures & Common TOEFL ITP Test Formats

Grammatical Brief Typical Part A Typical Part B Error

Structure Rule/Explanation Question Stem Example (Error
Example (Missing italicized)
part in ____)

Subject-Verb Verb agrees with the "Never before "Only recently have
Agreement with subject, even when _______ such a clear the full implications of
Inversion the subject follows the explanation." (has the discovery became
verb (e.g., after there been) clear." (become)
negative adverbs,
place expressions).

Reduced Adjective Omit "The research "The students

Clause connector/subject + _______ by the team attending the lecture
be-verb, or change yielded significant who were from out of
verb to -ing. Modifies results." (conducted) state found the topic
a noun. fascinating."
(Redundant who
were)

Parallelism with Structures following "The course is "She is proficient not

Correlative each part of the designed not only to only in speaking
Conjunctions (e.g. not conjunction must be impart knowledge but English but also write
only...but also) grammatically also _______ critical it fluently." (writing)
parallel. thinking skills." (to
develop)

Noun Clause as A clause functioning "_______ is still "That the committee

Subject as the subject of the unknown." (What members agreeing on
main verb; takes a caused the accident) a solution were
singular verb. surprising." (agreed /
was)
 Correct Use of -ing for active "The _______ news "The audience was
Participles as meaning (causing was met with clearly interesting in
Adjectives (-ed vs - effect); -ed for passive disbelief." (surprising) the speaker's
ing) meaning personal anecdotes."
(experiencing effect). (interested)

Verb Form after Modals (can, will, "All applicants "The manager said
Modals must, etc.) are _______ submit their that employees may
followed by the base forms by Friday." to take an extra day
form of the verb. (must) off." (take)

This table serves as a bridge, connecting abstract grammatical knowledge to its

concrete application within the test's specific question formats, thereby enhancing a
test-taker's ability to recognize patterns under pressure.

Module 9: Final Preparation Tips and Test Day Reminders

As the test day approaches, certain strategies can help consolidate preparation and
ensure optimal performance.

9.1. Last-Minute Review Strategies

In the final days leading up to the TOEFL ITP, focus on:
● Common Error Types: Quickly review the checklist of common errors (Module
5.2) and frequently confused word pairs (Module 6.1). Reinforce your
understanding of how these errors manifest.
● Challenging Grammar Points: Briefly go over any personal notes on grammatical
structures that you found particularly challenging during your studies.
● Practice Test Review: If you've taken full practice tests, review the explanations
for questions you answered incorrectly in the Structure and Written Expression
section. Understand the reasoning behind the correct answers.
● Avoid Cramming New Material: Extensive new learning at the last minute can be
counterproductive. Focus on consolidating what you already know.

9.2. On Test Day

To minimize stress and maximize focus on the test itself:
● Rest and Nutrition: Get a good night's sleep before the test and have a healthy
meal.23 Avoid heavy foods that might make you feel sluggish.
● Arrive Early: Allow ample time to get to the test center, check in, and settle down
before the test begins.23
 ● Valid Identification: Ensure you have the required valid and acceptable
identification documents as specified by ETS.4
● Dress Comfortably: Dress in layers so you can adapt to the room temperature,
which may vary.4
● Prohibited Items: Be aware that personal items, including cell phones, food,
beverages (unless specifically permitted for medical reasons and pre-approved),
dictionaries, notes, or any recording/photographic devices, are generally not
allowed in the testing room.4 Test centers typically assume no responsibility for
personal belongings.

9.3. Maintaining Focus and Confidence

Psychological preparedness is as important as academic readiness:
● Stay Calm: If you feel anxious, take a few deep breaths to help center yourself.23
● Confidence: Remind yourself of the preparation you have undertaken. Trust in
your abilities.23
● Focus on the Current Question: Avoid dwelling on previous questions you were
unsure about or worrying about upcoming sections. Concentrate fully on the
question at hand.
● Manage Time Actively: Keep an eye on the clock, but don't let it cause panic.
Stick to your pacing strategy.

Module 10: Further Practice and Resources

Consistent practice with appropriate materials is essential for improving skills and
building confidence for the TOEFL ITP Structure and Written Expression section.

10.1. Official ETS Resources Recap

The most reliable and recommended resources are those provided by ETS, the creators
of the TOEFL ITP test. These materials are designed to accurately reflect the content,
format, and difficulty level of the actual exam. Key official resources include 20:
● Official Guide to the TOEFL ITP® Test: This guide is specifically written to help
students prepare for both Level 1 and Level 2 tests. It typically includes descriptions
of question types, practice questions with answers and explanations, two full-length
practice tests, and useful strategies for improving academic English skills.
● TOEFL ITP® Level 1 Practice Tests, Volume 1 & Volume 2: Each volume
contains two complete TOEFL ITP Level 1 practice tests, Listening section audio,
answer keys, scoring information, study tips, and test-taking strategies.
● TOEFL ITP® Level 2 Practice Test, Volume 1: This contains one complete
TOEFL ITP Level 2 practice test, Listening section audio, an answer key, scoring
information, study tips, and test-taking strategies.
 ● Test Taker Handbook for the TOEFL ITP® Test: Provides comprehensive
information about the test, policies, and what to expect.
● Online Sample Questions: ETS websites often provide interactive sample
questions for each section of the Level 1 and Level 2 tests.

Utilizing these official materials should be the cornerstone of any study plan.

10.2. Reputable Third-Party Resources

While official ETS materials are paramount, various third-party organizations and
websites also offer TOEFL preparation materials, which may include practice for the
Structure and Written Expression section. Some commonly cited platforms include
GeeksforGeeks, Kaplan, PrepScholar, Magoosh, BestMyTest, TestDen, Udemy, and
GlobalExam.25

When considering third-party resources, it is advisable to:

● Verify Relevance to TOEFL ITP: Ensure the materials specifically target the
TOEFL ITP format and content, as general ESL grammar exercises or materials for
other tests (like TOEFL iBT) may not be perfectly aligned.
● Look for Quality Explanations: Good practice materials will not only provide
answers but also offer clear explanations for why an answer is correct and why
others are incorrect, referencing specific grammar rules.
● Use as Supplementary Material: Third-party resources are best used to
supplement official ETS materials, perhaps for additional practice on specific
grammar points or for different perspectives on strategy.

The existence and promotion of numerous third-party TOEFL preparation websites

indicate a demand for diverse practice options and teaching approaches. A thorough
understanding of what the TOEFL ITP Structure and Written Expression section actually
assesses, as detailed in this guide, can empower test-takers to better judge the quality
and relevance of these external materials. By knowing the specific grammar points,
question styles, and common pitfalls of the ITP, students can more effectively discern
whether a third-party resource offers targeted and accurate practice rather than generic
English exercises.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Successfully navigating the TOEFL ITP Structure and Written Expression section
requires a dual focus: a solid understanding of core English grammar and the
application of effective test-taking strategies. This guide has aimed to provide a
comprehensive framework for both.

Key Conclusions:
 1. Grammar is Foundational: Mastery of concepts such as subject-verb agreement,
verb tenses, pronoun usage, clause structures, parallel structure, and modifier
placement is non-negotiable. The section explicitly tests the ability to recognize
"standard written English".1
2. Time is of the Essence: With an average of 37.5 seconds per question, efficient
strategies for quick identification of correct forms or errors are paramount.2 This
necessitates moving beyond slow, methodical analysis to more rapid pattern
recognition.
3. Understanding Question Types is Crucial: Part A (Sentence Completion) and
Part B (Error Identification) require distinct approaches. For Part A, the focus is on
identifying the missing element that correctly completes a given grammatical
pattern. For Part B, a systematic scan for common error types is most effective.
4. Distractors are Designed to be Plausible: Incorrect answer choices, particularly
in Part A, are often grammatically correct in isolation but flawed within the sentence
context.5 In Part B, errors are typically subtle violations of specific rules.
5. Official Materials are a Priority: ETS-provided guides and practice tests offer the
most authentic preparation experience.20

Actionable Recommendations for Test-Takers:

1. Systematic Grammar Study: Dedicate significant time to reviewing and practicing
the core grammatical concepts outlined in Module 3. Use reputable grammar
textbooks and the detailed skill lists provided.5
2. Practice Pattern Recognition: For Part A, practice identifying incomplete
grammatical patterns and the elements needed to complete them. For Part B, use
the error checklist (Table 2) to develop a quick scanning technique.
3. Timed Practice: Regularly complete practice sets under timed conditions to
simulate the test environment and improve pacing.
4. Analyze Errors Thoroughly: When reviewing practice questions, don't just look at
the correct answer. Understand why your chosen answer was wrong and why the
correct answer is right, referencing specific grammar rules.
5. Develop Educated Guessing Strategies: Since there's no penalty for wrong
answers, always make a selection. Practice process of elimination and other
educated guessing techniques (Module 7.3) for questions where the answer isn't
immediately clear.
6. Focus on Formal English: Remember that the test assesses standard written
English. Prioritize formal grammatical conventions over informal or spoken forms.
7. Utilize Official Resources: Make the Official Guide to the TOEFL ITP Test and
official practice tests the core of the preparation. Supplement with reputable third-
party resources if additional targeted practice is needed.

By combining diligent study of English grammar with strategic test-taking approaches,

test-takers can significantly enhance their performance on the TOEFL ITP Structure and
Written Expression section, moving closer to their academic and professional goals.