2.

0 Structure of matter
2.1 Atoms
2.2 Isotopes
2.3 Arrangement of electrons
2.4 The Periodic table
2.5 Trends across and down the groups
2.1 Atoms
 What makes up matter?— An Early Idea
• Democritus was a Greek philosopher thought the
universe was made of empty space and tiny bits of stuff
that were so small that they could no longer be divided
into smaller pieces. He called these tiny pieces atoms.
• An atom is a small particle that makes up most types of
matter.
 Models of the Atom
• Models  used for things that are too small or too large
to be observed or that are too difficult to be understood
easily.
• For atoms, scientists use large models to explain
something that is too small to be looked at.
• These models of the atom were used to explain data or
facts that were gathered experimentally.
• There are five major models of atom
 Dalton’s Atomic Model

• That matter was made of atoms that were

too small to be seen by the human eye.
• Each type of matter was made of only one
kind of atom.
• Predictions using Dalton’s model were
supported by data, hence the model
became known as the atomic theory of
matter
Dalton’s model
 Discovering the Electron
• Joseph John Thomson(1856-
1940), an English scientist,
conducted experiments using a
cathode ray tube, a glass tube
sealed at both ends out of which
most of the air has been pumped.
• Thomson’s tube had a metal plate
at each end.
• The plates were connected to a high- Discovering the Electron
voltage electrical source that gave one
of the plates—the anode—a positive
charge and the other plate—the
cathode—a negative charge.
• During his experiments, Thomson
observed rays that traveled from the
cathode to the anode:had charge -ve
• These cathode rays were bent by a
magnet: made up of particles that had
mass.
• These invisible, negatively charged
particles are called electrons.
 Discovering the Electron
• Because most matter is
neutral, Thomson pictured the
atom as a ball of positive
charge with electrons
embedded in it: Plum
pudding model
• It was later determined that
neutral atoms contained an
equal number of positive and
negative charges.
Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model

However, the model

did not provide all
the answers to the
questions that
puzzled scientists
about atoms.
 Ernest Rutherford—The
Nucleus
• In about 1910, a team of scientists led by Ernest Rutherford bombarded
an extremely thin piece of gold foil with alpha particles.
• Alpha particles are tiny, high-energy, positively charged particles that
he predicted would pass through the foil.
• Results
• Most of the particles passed straight through the foil as if it were not
there at all.
• Other particles changed direction, and some even bounced back
• Conclusion: Because so many of the alpha particles passed straight
through the gold foil, the atoms must be made of mostly empty space.
 Positive Center
• However, because some of the
positively charged alpha particles
bounced off something, the atoms
must contain some positively charged
object concentrated in the midst of
this empty space.
• Rutherford called the positively
charged, central part of the atom the
nucleus
 Positive Center
• He named the positively charged
particles in the nucleus protons.
• He also suggested that electrons
were scattered in the mostly
empty space around the nucleus.
 Discovering the Neutron -James Chadwick
• After the collisions, the nuclei seemed to
be heavier.
• James Chadwick, a student of Rutherford’s,
suggested that the alpha particles
themselves were not heavier, but the atoms
had given off new particles.
• Chadwick found that the paths of these particles were not
affected by an electric field.
• He said that these particles came from the nucleus and had
no charge
• Chadwick called these uncharged particles neutrons.
Rutherford’s model of the atom
 Improving the Atomic Model
• Early in the twentieth century, a scientist named
Niels Bohr found evidence that electrons in atoms
are arranged according to energy levels.
• The lowest energy level is closest to the nucleus and
can hold only two electrons
• Higher energy levels are farther from the nucleus and
can contain more electrons.
• Some scientists thought that the electrons might orbit
an atom’s nucleus in paths that are specific distances
from the nucleus, similar to how the planets orbit
the Sun.
Bohr’s Solar System model

Electrons
rotate
around
the
nucleus
 The Modern Atomic Model
• Scientists now realize that because
electrons have characteristics that are
similar to waves and particles, their
energy levels are not defined, planet-
like orbits around the nucleus.
• Rather, it seems most likely that
electrons move in what is called the
atom’s electron cloud.
 The Electron Cloud
• The electron cloud is a spherical cloud
of varying density surrounding the
nucleus.
• The varying density shows where an
electron is more or less likely to be.
Quantum mechanics model
Modern
description of the
electron in
atoms, derived
from a
mathematical
equation
(Schrodinger’s
wave equation)
 Atomic Symbol
An atomic symbol
•represents a particular atom of an element.
•gives the mass number in the upper left corner and the
atomic number in the lower left corner.
Example: An atom of sodium with atomic number 11 and
a mass number 23 has the following atomic symbol:
mass number 23
Na
atomic number 11
 Information from Atomic Symbols
The atomic symbol for a specific atom of an element
gives the
• number of protons (p+),
• number of neutrons (n),
• and number of electrons (e-).
 Information from Atomic Symbols
Examples of number of subatomic particles for atoms
Atomic symbol
16 31 65
O P Zn
8 15 30

8 p+ 15 p+ 30 p+
8n 16 n 35 n
8 e- 15 e- 30 e-
25
2.2 Isotopes
Isotopes
Isotopes
•are atoms of the same element that have
different mass numbers.
•have the same number of protons, but different
numbers of neutrons.

27
Isotopes and Atomic Mass

24Mg 25Mg 26Mg

12 12 12
28
Try This
Naturally occurring carbon consists of three isotopes:
12C, 13C, and 14C. State the number of protons, neutrons,

and electrons in each of the following:

12C 13C 14C
6 6 6

protons ______ ______ ______

neutrons ______ ______ ______
electrons ______ ______ ______ 29
 Solution

12C 13C 14C

6 6 6

protons 6 p+ 6 p+ 6 p+

neutrons 6 n 7n 8n
electrons 6 e- 6 e- 6 e-

30
 What about the other way round

Write the atomic symbols for atoms with the following

subatomic particles:
A. 8 p+, 8 n, 8 e- ___________

B. 17p+, 20n, 17e- ___________

C. 47p+, 60 n, 47 e- ___________ 31
 Solution

A. 8 p+, 8 n, 8 e- 16O
8

B. 17p+, 20 n, 17e- 37Cl

17

C. 47p+, 60 n, 47 e- 107Ag
47 32
 Another one for try
1. Which of the pairs are isotopes of the same element?
2. In which of the pairs do both atoms have 8 neutrons?
A. 15X 15X
8 7

B. 12X 14X
6 6

C. 15X 16X
7 8 33
 Solution
B. 12X 14X
6 6

The atomic symbols in “B.” represent isotopes of carbon

with 6 protons each, but one has 6 neutrons and the
other has 8.
C. 15X 16X

7 8

These isotopes of nitrogen and oxygen have 8 neutrons.

34
Isotopes of Magnesium
 Isotopes of Sulfur
A sample of naturally
occurring sulfur contains
several isotopes with the
following abundances
Isotope % abundance
32S 95.02
33S 32S, 33S, 34S, 36S
0.75
34S 16 16 16 16
4.21
36S 0.02
36
 Atomic Mass
The atomic mass of an element
•is listed either at top of the symbol of
each element on the periodic table.
•gives the mass of an “average” atom Na
of each element compared to 12C.
22.99

•is not the same as the mass number.

37
 Isotopes of Some Elements and Their Atomic Mass
Most elements have two or more isotopes that
contribute to the atomic mass of that element.

38
 Atomic Mass for Cl

The atomic mass of chlorine is

•due to all the Cl isotopes.
•not a whole number.
•the average of two isotopes:
35Cl and 37Cl.

40
 Before we go further try this
Using the periodic table, specify the atomic mass of
each element.
A. calcium __________
B. aluminum __________
C. lead __________
D. barium __________
E. iron __________ 41
 Solution
Using the periodic table, specify the atomic mass of
each element:
A. calcium 40.08 amu
B. aluminum 26.98 amu
C. lead 207.2 amu
D. barium 137.3 amu
E. iron 55.85 amu 42
 Calculating Atomic Mass

The calculation for atomic mass requires the

•percent(%) abundance of each isotope.
•atomic mass of each isotope of that element.
•sum of the weighted averages.
mass of isotope(1)x (%) + mass of isotope(2) x (%) + …
100 100 43
 Calculating Atomic Mass for Cl
35Clhas atomic mass 34.97 amu (75.76%) and 37Cl has atomic
mass 36.97 amu (24.24%).
•Use atomic mass and percent of each isotope to calculate the
contribution of each isotope to the weighted average.
34.97 x 75.76 = 26.49 amu
100
36.97 x 24.24 = 8.961 amu
100
•Sum is atomic mass of Cl 35.45 amu 44
 Calculating Atomic Mass Mg
Isotope Mass Abundance
24Mg = 23.99 amu x 78.70/100 = 18.88 amu
25Mg = 24.99 amu x 10.13/100 = 2.531 amu
26Mg = 25.98 amu x 11.17/100 = 2.902 amu

Atomic mass (average mass) Mg = 24.31 amu

45
Atomic Mass of Magnesium

The atomic mass of Mg

•is due to all the Mg
isotopes.
•is a weighted average.
•is not a whole number.

46
 Lesson Check

Gallium is an element found in lasers used in

compact disc players. In a sample of gallium,
there is 60.10% of 69Ga (atomic mass 68.926)
71
atoms and 39.90% of Ga (atomic mass
70.925) atoms.
What is the atomic mass of gallium?
47
 31
Solution
Ga
69Ga 69.72
68.926 amu x 60.10 = 41.42 amu (from 69Ga)
100
71Ga

70.925 amu x 39.90 = 28.30 amu (from 71Ga)

100
Atomic mass Ga = 69.72 amu 48
2.3 Arrangement of electrons
 I. Electron Cloud – Energy Levels
Electrons are found in various energy levels around the nucleus. The
energy levels are analogous to the rungs of a ladder. The lowest rung of
the ladder corresponds to the lowest energy level. A person can climb
up or down a ladder by going from rung to rung. Similarly, an electron
can jump from one energy level to another. A person on a ladder cannot
stand between the rungs; similarly, the electrons in an atom cannot exist
between energy levels.
A. Quantum: To move from one rung to another, a
person climbing a ladder must move just the right
distance. To move from one energy level to another,
an electron must gain or lose just the right amount of
energy. The exact amount of energy required to
move from one energy level to another is called a
quantum of energy.
B. Photon: When electrons move from one higher
energy level to another lower energy level we see
light – going from one energy level to another energy
level gives off an exact amount of light (called a
photon).
.

Electron Absorbing Energy Electron Emitting Energy

(Photon) (Photon)
Electron will move from a ground Electron will move from an
state to an excited state. excited state to a ground state.
A. Energy Levels: energy levels (represented by the letter n) are
assigned values in order of increasing energy: n=1,2,3,4, and
so forth…. which correspond to the periods in the periodic
table.

Which energy level is furthest away from the nucleus and has
electrons with the highest energy – 1, 2, 3, or 4?

Answer: 4
B.Sublevels or orbitals:
Within each energy level, the electrons are
located in various sublevels – there are 4
different sublevels s, p, d, and f.
Sublevels define the shape of the orbital
(s, p, d, & f).
• Energy level
1s
• Relative Size of the orbital

2s

3s
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem
p-Orbitals

px pz py

Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 335

d-orbitals

Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 336

 Summary of Shapes of s, p, and d-Orbitals
s orbital

p orbitals

d orbitals
Atomic Orbitals
n2 = # of orbitals in the energy level

n=1. s sublevel =1 orbital

n=2. 1s orbital and 3p orbitals = 4 orbitals
n=3. 1s orbital 3p orbitals and 5d orbitals = 9 orbitals
n=4. 1s, 3ps, 5ds and 7fs = 16 orbitals
 Orbital (2 electrons/orbital)
• Orientation of orbital (px, py, pz)
• Specifies the exact orbital within each sublevel

Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

C. Orbitals: Where are the electrons in the various
sublevels located in relation to the nucleus?
• Electrons are NOT confined to a fixed circular path, they
are, however, found in definite regions of the atoms –
these regions are called atomic orbital’s!
• Each orbital can only hold 2 electrons at a time (Pauli
exclusion principle).
 Number of orbitals per sublevel
•Within the s sublevel there is only 1 orbital (which is
spherical) it is called the s orbital.
•Within the p sublevel there are 3 orbital’s (which are
dumbbell shaped) called the px, py, pz orbital’s.
•Within the d sublevel there are 5 orbital’s (4 of which
are cloverleaf shaped) called the dxy, dxz, dyz, dx2-y2, dz2
orbital’s.
•Within the f sublevel there are 7 orbital’s - which are too
complex to draw
Maximum Number of Electrons In Each Sublevel
Maximum Number of Electrons In Each Sublevel
Maximum Number
Sublevel Number of Orbitals of Electrons
s 1 2

p 3 6

d 5 10

f 7 14
D. How many electrons can go into each energy level?
•Each orbital can hold two electrons.
•Number of electrons per energy level = 2n2

The 1st energy level (n=1) only has 1 sublevel called 1s.
s only has 1 orbital called the s orbital, so only 2 electrons
will be found in the 1st energy level. (2n2 = 2)
 Total number of electrons in n=2

The 2nd energy level (n=2) has 2 sublevels called 2s

and 2p. s only has 1 orbital called the s orbital, p
has 3 orbital’s called px, py, and pz orbitals, so 8
electrons will be found in the 2nd energy level.
(2n2 = 8)
 Total number of electrons in n=3

The 3rd energy level (n=3) has 3 sublevels called 3s,

3p, and 3d. s only has 1 orbital called the s orbital,
p has 3 orbital’s called px, py, and pz orbitals, and d
has 5 orbital’s, so 18 electrons will be found in the
3rd energy level. (2n2 = 18)
Total number of electrons in n=4

•How about the 4th energy level?

•It has 4 sublevels called 4s, 4p, 4d, and 4f. s only
has 1 orbital, p has 3 orbital’s, d has 5 orbital’s, and
f has 7 orbitals, so 32 electrons will be found in the
4th energy level. (2n2 = 32)
E. Lets put it all
together:
Example of
neon atom:
 Spin of an electron within an orbital
•Each orbital can hold two electrons, both with
different spins (clockwise spin and
counterclockwise spin).
•Electrons fill the orbitals one at a time with the
same spin, then fill up the orbitals with electrons
of the opposite spin.
Alignment of
electron spin

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.

 Electron Configuration:
• It is very difficult to draw a representation or model
of atom showing where the electrons are located, so
instead we can write electron configurations for
elements.
• Definition of electron configuration:
• a written representation of the arrangement of electrons
in an atom.
 When constructing orbital diagrams and electron configurations,
keep the following in mind:
• Aufbau Principle – electrons fill in order from lowest to highest
energy. *Aufbau is German for “building up”
• Electrons are added one at a time to the lowest energy
orbitals available until all the electrons of the atom have
been accounted for.
• The Pauli Exclusion Principle –An orbital can hold a
maximum of two electrons.
 When constructing orbital diagrams and electron configurations,
keep the following in mind:
• Electron spin- To occupy the same orbital, two electrons
must spin in opposite directions i.e. The two electrons
must have opposite spins.
• Sublevel-You must know how many electrons can be held by
each sublevel(ie; s can hold 2, 6 for p, 10 for d, 14 for f)
• Hund’s rule – the lowest energy configuration for an atom is
the one having the maximum number of unpaired electrons
for a set of degenerate orbitals. All unpaired electrons are
represented as having parallel spins with spin “up”.
• Electrons occupy equal-energy orbitals so that a
maximum number of unpaired electrons results.
Quantum Numbers
• Pauli Exclusion Principle
• No two electrons in an atom can have the
same 4 quantum numbers.
Wolfgang Pauli
• Each electron has a unique “address”:

1. Principal #  energy level

2. Ang. Mom. #  sublevel (s,p,d,f)
3. Magnetic #  orbital
4. Spin #  electron
You notice, for example, that the 4s sublevel requires less
energy than the 3d sublevel; therefore, the 4s orbital
is filled with electrons before any electrons enter the
3d orbital!!!!
II. How do we write an electron configuration?

A. 1st rule - electrons occupy orbitals that require the least

amount of energy for the electron to stay there. So always
follow the vertical rule (Aufbau Principle):

You notice, for example, that the 4s sublevel requires less

energy than the 3d sublevel; therefore, the 4s orbital is
filled with electrons before any electrons enter the 3d
orbital!!!!
B. 2nd rule – only 2 electrons can go into any
orbital, however, you must place one electron
into each orbital in a sublevel before a 2nd
electron can occupy an orbital. Orbital’s with
only 1 electron in the orbital are said to have an
unpaired electron in them. (Hund’s rule)
 III. Writing Electron Configurations (3 ways):

A. Orbital Notation: an unoccupied orbital is

represented by a line______, with the orbitals
name written underneath the line. An orbital
containing one electron is written as _____, an
orbital with two electrons is written as ____.
The lines are labeled with the principal quantum
number and the sublevel letter.
 Examples: (Remember that you must place one electron
into each orbital before a second electron in placed into an
orbital.)

Hydrogen ____ Helium __

1s 1s

Lithium ___ ____

1s 2s

Carbon ____ ____ ____ ____ _____

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz
H = 1s1
1s

He = 1s2
1s

Li = 1s2 2s1
1s 2s

Be = 1s2 2s2
1s 2s

C = 1s2 2s2 2p2

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz

S = 1s2 2s2 2p4

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s 3px 3py 3pz
H = 1s1
1s
e-
+1

He = 1s2
1s

e-
+2
e-

Be = 1s2 2s2
1s 2s
e-
e-
+4
e- e-
•B. Electron Configuration Notation: eliminates the
lines and arrows of orbital notation. Instead, the
number of electrons in a sublevel is shown by
adding a superscript to the sublevel designation.
The superscript indicates the number of electrons
present in that sublevel.
Examples:
•Hydrogen: 1s1 Helium: 1s2
•Lithium: 1s22s1
•Carbon: 1s22s22p2
• You try to write the notation for Titanium
 Fe = 1s1 2s22p63s23p64s23d6 26 electrons.
Iron has ___

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s 3px 3py 3pz 4s 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d

6s 6p 5d 4f

32

5s 5p 4d
e- 18
e-
e- e-
e- 4s 4p 3d
e- e-
e-
e- 18
e- e- e- e-
e-
+26 Arbitrary 3s 3p
e-
e- e-
e- Energy Scale 8
e- e- e- e-
e-
e- e- 2s 2p
e-
8

1s
2

NUCLEUS
Electron Configurations
Orbital Filling
Electron
Element 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s Configuration

H 1s1

He 1s2
NOT CORRECT
Li 1s22s1
Violates Hund’s
Rule 1s22s22p2
C

N 1s22s22p3

O 1s22s22p4

F 1s22s22p5

Ne 1s22s22p6

Na 1s22s22p63s1
C. Short Hand or Noble Gas Notation:
Use the noble gases that have complete inner
energy levels and an outer energy level with
complete s and p orbital’s. Use the noble gas
that just precedes the element you are working
with.
Boron is ls22s22p1
The noble gas preceding Boron is He, so the short
2 1
way is [He]2s 2p .

Sulfur is ls22s22p63s23p4
Short way: [Ne]3s23p4

Example: Titanium
More Practice Problems:
Write electron configurations for each of the following atoms:
Atomic number
1. Boron 5
2. Sulfur 16
3. Vanadium 23
4. Iodine 53
More Practice Problems:
Write electron configurations for each of the following atoms:
Atomic number
Draw orbital diagrams for these:
5. Sodium 11
6. Phosphorus 15
7. Chlorine 17
More Practice Problems:
Write electron configurations for each of the following atoms:
Atomic number
1. Write shorthand electron configuration for the following:
8. Sr 38
9. Mo 42
10. Ge 32
 Irregular Electron configurations

– Sometimes the electron configuration is NOT what

we would predict it to be. Sometimes electrons are
moved because
1. it will result in greater stability for that atom or
2. for some unknown reason??
 Atoms stability

It is very important to define “stable” here.

STABLE means:
1. all degenerate (equal energy) orbital’s are
FULL
2. all degenerate orbital’s are half-full
3. all degenerate orbital’s are totally empty.
 Examples
•– draw the orbital’s (lines or boxes) and fill each orbital
with the predicted number of electrons.
•Example: Predict the electron configuration for Cr atomic
#24:
•[Ar]4s23d4
•However, the real E. C. is [Ar]4s13d5. The 4s1 electron
has been moved to achieve greater stability.
• ALWAYS USE THE ACTUAL E. C. AND NOT THE PREDICTED ONE. YOU
WILL HAVE THESE ATOMS WITH IRREGULAR E. C. HIGHLIGHTED OR
MARKED ON YOUR PERIODIC TABLE.
 Electron configurations for Ions
•First, determine if the element will lose or gain
electrons.
•Secondly, what number of electrons will be
gained or lost?
•It is recommended that you write the e.c. for
the atom and then determine what will
happen.
 For cations (positive ions)
•Look at the element and decide how many
electrons will be lost when it ionizes and keep that
in mind when writing the E. C. The last number in
the E. C. will now be LESS than what is written on
your periodic table.
•Ex. Write the electron configuration for magnesium
ion:
• [Ne]3s is for the atom.
2

•Mg is a metal and will lose its valence (outer)

electrons, so the e.c. for Mg2+ is 1s22s22p6
 For anions (negative ions)
•look at the element and decide how many electrons that
element will GAIN when it ionizes. The last number in
the E. C. will be MORE than what is written on the
periodic table.
•Ex. Sulfide ion:
•Sulphur atom is 1s22s22p4.
•Sulphur is a nonmetal with 6 valence electrons (2s2
and 2p4) and
•will gain 2 electrons:
•1s22s22p6 is for the sulfide ion.
• For cations (positive ions) – look at the element and decide
how many electrons will be lost when it ionizes and keep that
in mind when writing the E. C. The last number in the E. C. will
now be LESS than what is written on your periodic table.
• Ex. Write the electron configuration for magnesium ion:
[Ne]3s2 is for the atom. Mg is a metal and will lose its valence
(outer) electrons, so the e.c. for Mg2+ is 1s22s22p6
• Practice:
1. #3
2. #12
3. #19
4. #13
•For anions (negative ions) – look at the element and
decide how many electrons that element will GAIN when
it ionizes. The last number in the E. C. will be MORE than
what is written on the periodic table.
•Ex. Sulfide ion: Sulfur atom is 1s22s22p4. Sulfur is a
nonmetal with 6 valence electrons (2s2 and 2p4) and will
gain 2 electrons: 1s22s22p6 is for the sulfide ion.
•Practice:
1.#17
2.#7
3.#16
4.#30