Department of Physics

Applied Physics Lab - Manual

(VTR UGE-2021)
 List of Experiments

Cycle:1

1. Torsional Pendulum
2. Young’s Modulus
3. Dispersive Power of a Prism
4. Semiconductor Laser

Cycle: 2

1. Lees Disc
2. Dielectric Constant.
3. Spectrometer - Grating
4. Thermistor Characteristics
 TORSIONAL PENDULUM – RIGIDITY MODULUS

Expt. No.: Date:

Aim: To determine the Moment of Inertia of the disc and the Rigidity Modulus of the wire by
Torsional Oscillations

Apparatus: Uniform circular disc, wire, two equal cylindrical masses, stop-clock, screw gauge
and meter scale.

Formula:
2md 2  d 2 T 2
I
2 1 o
Moment of Inertia of the disc kg.m2
T22  T12

8 Il
Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire n Newton/metre2
2 4
T r
o

Explanation of symbols

Symbol Explanation Unit

m Mass of one of the cylinders placed on the disc. Kg
Closest distance between suspension wire and the centre of mass of the
d1 meter
cylinder
Farthest distance between suspension wire and the centre of mass of the
d2 meter
cylinder
T0 Time period without any mass placed on disc second
T1 Time period when equal masses are placed at a distance d1 second
T2 Time period when equal masses are placed at a distance d2 second
l Length of the suspension wire meter
r Radius of the wire meter

Observation:

Table 1:

To determine the Moment of Inertia of the disc and Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire

Length Position of Time

Timing for 10 oscillations I n
(l) masses period (T)
Second Kg m2 N/m2
10-2m Kg second
Trial 1 Trial 2 Mean
Without masses T 0=
At d1
T1 =
 ..... 102 m
At d2
T2 =
 .... 102 m
Table: 2

To find the diameter (d) of the suspension wire – screw gauge

LC = 0.01 mm ZE = ………division ZC = ………division

Pitch scale Head scale Observed reading Correct reading

S.no. reading (P.S.R) Reading (H.S.C) OR=P.S.R +(H.S.C x L.C) CR = OR  Z.C.
mm division mm Mm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean diameter of the wire (d) =……… x 10-3m
d
Mean radius of the wire (R)   ………x 10-3m
2

Calculation:

Mass of one of the cylinder m = .................Kg

Closest distance between suspension wire and the

centre of mass of the cylinder d1 = ................. m

Farthest distance between suspension wire and the

centre of mass of the cylinder d2 = ................. m

Time period without masses T0 =.................. second

Time period with masses are at a distance ‘d1’ T1 =................. second

Time period with masses are at a distance ‘d2’ T2 =................. second

Length of the suspension wire l = ................... m

Mean diameter of the wire d = ................. m

Mean radius of the wire r =................... m

Procedure:
 The length of the suspension wire is fixed (50 cm to 80 cm)
 Disc is slightly twisted, so that executes torsional oscillations. (Wobbling and zigzag
motions should be avoided)
 Without masses on the disc [Refer Fig. (1.1a)] the time taken for 10 oscillations are noted.
Two trials are taken. By using this value time period T0 (time for one oscillation) is
found.
 With masses at a distance d1 [Refer fig. (1.1b)], the time taken for 10oscillations are noted.
Two trials are taken from that the Time period I is found.
 1a 1b 1c

 With masses at a distance ‘d2’ [Refer fig (1.1c)], the time taken for 10oscillations are
noted. Two trials are taken from that the time period T2 found.
 After removing the disc, Diameter of the wire (d) is measured by using screw gauge at
various places and the radius (r) of the wire is calculated
 The moment of Inertia of the disc and the Rigidity modulus of the wire calculated by
using the given formula.


 
2m d 22  d 21 T 02 
kgm2
Moment of Inertia of the disc I

T2  T1
2 2

I = ............. Kg m2

Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire

8 Il
n N / m2
T02 r 4
n 
n  ........... N / m2

Result:

The moment of inertia of the disc I = ...................Kg m2

Rigidity modulus of the wire n =................... N/m2

VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS

1. What is torsion pendulum?

2. What is rigid body?

3. Why it is called torsion pendulum?

4. What is the type of oscillation executing in torsion pendulum?

5. On what factors the time of oscillation depends?

6. Is there any rigidity modulus for fluids?

 DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS – UNIFORM BENDING

Expt. No.: Date:

Aim: To determine Young’s modulus of the material of the beam by Uniform bending method.

Apparatus: The given beam (meter scale), two weight hangers with slotted weights (each 50
Kg) and two knife edges, Pin and traveling microscope, Vernier caliper and Screw gauge.

Formula
Young’s Modulus of the material of the beam (meter scale) by uniform bending method
3Mgl 2a
E= 3 Newton/metre2
2bd y
Where
y – Mean elevation at the centre of the beam for a load M kg in meters
g – Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)
l – Distance between the two knife edges in metres
b – Breadth of the beam (metre scale) in metres
d – Thickness of the beam (metre scale) in meters
a– Distance between knife edge and weight hanger in meters

Procedure:

The given beam is supported symmetrically on two knife-edges such that the distance
between them is about 0.7m. Two weight hangers are suspended, one each on either side of the
knife edges so that their distances form the nearer knife edge are equal. A pin is fixed vertically
at the centre of the beam. A traveling microscope is placed in front of this arrangement and
adjusted so that the tip of the pin is seen clearly when viewed through the eyepiece of the
microscope. With the two weight hangers as dead load, the microscope is adjusted till the tip of
the pin just touches the horizontal cross-wire. The reading on the vertical scale is noted. Equal
weights are loaded to the hangers in steps of 0.05kg and each time reading on the vertical scale of
the Vernier microscope is taken, ensuring that the tip of the pin just coincides with the horizontal
cross-wire. The procedure is followed until the maximum load is reached. Now weights are
removed from both the hangers in steps of 0.05kg and in each case of the reading are taken. For
each load, the mean reading taken while loading and unloading is obtained. The difference
between the mean reading for a particular load and that of the dead load gives elevation ‘s’ for
that load.
 Least Count of travelling microscope:

Value of 1Main scale division

0.05 cm
Least count (L.C.)  = = 0.001 cm.
Totalnumber of divisions on the Vernier scale 50

Observations:

(i) To find the elevation of the beam using Travelling Microscope:

Observed Reading (O.R.) = MSR + (VSC  L.C.) L.C. = 0.001cm

Distance Microscope Readings

between While Loading While Unloading Elevation
S. Load
two y for
No x10-2 Mean
knidge MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR M kg.
. m 10-2 m -2
edges 10-2 m div 10-2 m 10-2 m div 10-2 m 10 m
l x 10-2 m
1 W
2 W+50
3 W+100
4 W+150
5 W+200
6 W+250

Mean y =

Least count of Vernier caliper: 

Value of 1Main scale division 0.1cm

Least count (L.C.)  =  0.01cm
Totalnumber of divisions on the Vernier scale 10
(ii) To find the breadth of the beam using Vernier Caliper:

LC = 0.01 cm ZE = ………division ZC = ………division

Main scale Vernier Scale Observed reading Correct reading

S.no. reading (M.S.R) Coincidence OR=M.S.R +(V.S.CxL.C) CR = OR  Z.C.
cm (V.S.C) division cm Cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean (b) =.............  10- 2m

Least count of Screw gauge:

Value of 1Pitch scale division 1mm

Least count (L.C.)  = = 0.01 mm
Totalnumber of divisions on the head scale 100

(ii) To find the Thickness of the beam using Screw Gauge:

LC = 0.01 mm ZE= ………division ZC = ………division

Pitch scale Head scale Observed reading OR=P.S.R Correct reading

S.no. reading (P.S.R) Reading (H.S.C) +(H.S.CxL.C) CR = OR  Z.C.
mm division mm Mm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean diameter of the wire (d) =……… x 10-3m

Calculation

Mean elevation‘s’ at the centre of the beam for M = ............... 10- 3kg
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8m/s2
Distance between the two knife edges l = ............... 10- 2m
Breadth of the beam b = ............... 10- 2m
Thickness of the beam d = ............... 10- 3m
Distance between knife edge and weight hanger a = ............... 10- 2m
 Young’s Modulus of the material of the beam (metre scale) by Uniform Bending method:

3Mgl 2a
E= 3 Newton/m2
2bd y

Result:

Young’s modulus of the material of the beam (wooden scale) by uniform bending

method E = ............................. N/m2 (or) Pascal

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define young‟s modulus.

2. How are longitudinal strain and stress produced in your experiment?
3. Define Hook‟s law.
4. Will the value of young‟s modulus obtained by you change if the length, thickness or breadth
of the bar is altered?
5. What are stress and strain?
6. What is uniform bending?
7. Why should the beam be placed symmetrically on two knife edges?
8. How will you bring the beam to the elastic mode?
9. How should the adding of weights to the weight hangers on the beam be done?
10. Why should the measurement of thickness of the beam be done very accurately?
 DISPERSIVE POWER OF A PRISM

Expt. No: Date:

Aim: To find the dispersive power of the material of the prism using spectrometer

Apparatus: Spectrometer, Mercury Vapour lamp, Glass prism, Reading lens

Formula
( )
Refractive index 
( )



v  r
Dispersive power of the material of the prism  
 y 1

Explanation

Symbol Explanation Unit

A Angle of the prism degree
D Angle of minimum deviation degree
v Refractive index of the prism for violet line -
r Refractive index of the prism for red line -
y Refractive index of the prism for yellow line -

Procedure

The initial adjustment of the spectrometer should be made before starting the experiment

Preliminary adjustments

 Telescope adjustment: Initially distances object should be made in the telescope. Then
telescope to be brought straight to the collimator.
 Collimator adjustment: Initially collimator window should be open and allow the light to
passes through the window and see whether the slit is thin and clear after entering into the
telescope. Now make white slit to coincide with vertical telescope crosswire. Then fix the
telescope.
 Vernier table adjustment: Release the vernier screw and rotate the vernier table and set
the vernier scale reading 0 – 0 in one side and 0 – 1800 in another side, then fix the vernier
screw
Determination of angle of minimum deviation (D)

The prism table is rotated so that the beam of light from the collimator is incident on one
face of the prism and emerges out from the other face. The telescope is rotated to catch the
refracted image of the yellow slit. The prism table is rotated in such a direction so that the
refracted image moves towards the direct beam. The telescope is rotated carefully to have the
image in the field of view. At one stage, the image stops momentarily and turns back. This is the
position of the minimum deviation (fig2)

The telescope is rotated and made to coincide with the violet slit. The telescope is fixed in
this position and refracted ray reading of the telescope is noted. The experiment is repeated for
red slit. The prism is removed and the direct reading of the slit is taken. The difference between
the direct reading and the refracted ray reading corresponding to the minimum deviation gives the
angle of minimum deviation ‘D’. The dispersive power is calculated using the given formula.

Table: Determination of angle of minimum deviation and refractive index:

Diffracted ray reading Anle of

Colour Minimum
of Vernier-A Vernier-B µ
S.No VA = VB = Deviation
spectral TR TR D
MSR VSC MSR VSC A1~A2 B1~B2
lines (A1) (B1)
(deg) (div) (deg) (deg) (div) (deg) (deg) (deg) (deg)
Direct
1
Ray
2 Violet
3 Yellow
4 Red

Precaution
 All the initial adjustments of the spectrometer must be done before starting the
experiment.
 During rotation of the telescope, if the vernier zero crosses the zero mark of the main
circular scale, then the latter should be considered as 360° and calculations should made
accordingly.
 The polished faces of the prism should not be touched.
 Figure: Determination of angle of minimum deviation

Calculation
Refractive index

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )



v  r
Dispersive power of the material of the prism  
 y 1
Result

Dispersive power of the prism = ................... (no unit)

VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS:

1. Define refractive index

2. How does refractive index changes with wavelength of light?
3. What is the condition for obtaining minimum deviation?
4. Define dispersive power.
5. Which lines have the greatest deviation from the direct ray?
 SEMICONDUCTOR LASER

Expt. No.:

Date :

Aim: To determine (i) the wave length of the given laser source, using a laser grating and to find
the size of the given micro particles (Powder) using laser source, (ii) To determine the numerical
aperture (NA) and angle of acceptance of the given multimode fibre.

Apparatus Required: Laser source, Fine micro particles having nearly same size (say
Lycopodium powder), Glass plate, Screen and Meter scale.

Formula

Xm
Wave length of given laser source  Å
Nm X 2m  D2
 m y 2 m  D2
The size of the particle d  m
ym
 r
NA = sinmaxi NA  No unit
r2  d 2

Where
N - Number of lines per metre in the grating
Xm - Mean distance between the spots
 - Wave length of the laser light.
m - Order of the spectrum
ym - Radius of the mth ring
D - Distance between glass plate and the screen in metres
rn - Radius of the nth ring

Theory:

Numerical Aperture:

Numerical Aperture of any optical system is a measure of how much light can be collected
by the optical system. It is the product of the refractive index of the incident medium and the sine
of the maximum ray angle.NA= ni.sinmax;ni for air is 1,hence NA= sinmax.For a step-index fibre,
as in the present case, the numerical aperture is given by N= (ncore2 – ncladding2). For very small
differences in refractive indices the equation reduces to N= ncore(2), where  is the fractional
difference in refractive indices NA = sinmax

Acceptance angle: It is the maximum angle for with the light ray which is launched at the
launching end of the fiber undergo total internal reflection  = sin-1 NA.
Procedure

(a) To find the wave length of the laser source:

He - Ne laser kept horizontally and switched on (extreme care should be taken to avoid
direct exposure of laser light on eye). The grating is held normal to the laser beam. This is done
by adjusting the grating in such way that the reflected laser beam coincides with beam coming out
of the laser source.

After adjusting for normal incidence, the laser light is exposed to the grating and it is
diffracted by it. On the other side of the grating on the screen, the diffracted laser spots are seen.
The distances of different orders from the centre spot (xn) are measured. The distance between the
grating and screen (D) is measured.Using the formula, ‘’ is calculated.

Xm
The wave length of the laser light is found with the formula   Å. The
Nm X 2m  D2
number of lines in the grating is assumed (as 2,500 lines per inch, it may be taken as 1 lakhs lines
per metres).

(b) To find the size of the given particle

A glass plate is taken and powder of the particle size in the range of micrometer is
sprinkled on the glass plate. This glass plate is kept between laser light and screen. Now laser
beam gets diffracted by the particles present in the glass plate. By adjusting the distance between
the glass plate and the screen, a circular fringe pattern is seen on the screen. The fringes are the
first order and second order fringes respectively. Now distance between the screen and the glass
plate (D) is measured. The distance of the first order and second order fringe from the center of
spot are also measured.

 m y 2 m  D2
Using the formula, d  m the particle size can be found. The experiment is
ym
repeated for different D values.

(c) Numerical aperture and Acceptance angle of an optical fiber

The schematic diagram of the numerical aperture measurement system is shown below
and is self-explanatory.

Step1: connect one end of the cable1 (1-metre fiber optics cable) to led port of btm20b and the
other end to the NA, as shown.

Step2: plug the AC mains. Light should appear at the end of the fiber on the NA jig.

Step3: hold the white screen with the 4 concentric circles (10, 15, 20and25 mm diameter)

Vertically at suitable distances Make the red spot from the fiber coincides with the 10 mm
circle. Note that the circumference of the spot (outermost) must coincide with the circle. A dark
room will facilitate good contrast. Record L, the distance of the screen from the end and note the
diameter (w) of the spot.
r
Step4: compute NA from the formula NA = sinmax = Tabulate the reading and repeat
r2  d 2
the experiment for 15mm, 20mm and 25mm diameters too.
(a)To find the wave length of the laser source:

D= ………….. 102 m N = .................... lines/metre

Distance between the
central maximum and the Xm
S. Mean  
No.
Order diffracted image 102 m (xm)
D2 X m D
2 2
Nm X 2 m  D 2
(xm)
102 m
Left Right
1. 1
2. 2
3. 3

Mean = ............. m
(b) To find the size of the given particle

Wave length of the given laser source = ................. Ao

Distance between the

central maximum and m y 2 m  D 2
S.
the diffracted image
Mean
D2
d 
Order
No.
102 m (ym)
(ym) y m D
2 2 ym
102 m M
Left Right
1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
Mean d =.............m

(c) Measurement of Numerical aperture and Acceptance angle of an optical fibre:

Distance between
Radius of circular
Length of numerical aperture r Mean of
opening of numerical
the fibre and jig opening fibre . numerical
S.No aperture r2  d 2
(L) source 3 aperture
r10 m
d102 m
1.
2.
3.

Mean NA= ……….

Calculation

Number of lines per metre in the grating N = .............lines/m

Wave length of the laser source  = .............Ao
Order of the spectrum m = ……….
Distance between glass plate and the screen D = .............metres
Distance between the central bright spot and the nth fringe xm = .............metres

Xm
Wave length of given laser source  Ao
Nm X 2
m D 2

 m y 2 m  D2
The size of the particle d m
ym

r
Numerical Aperture of the given fibre optics cable NA = sinmaxi=
r2  d 2

Acceptance angle of an optical fibre  = .................... degree

Result:

(i) Wave length of given laser source  = .................... Ao

(ii) The size of the particle d = ....................m
(iii) Numerical Aperture of the given fiber optics cable NA = ……………
(iv) Acceptance angle of an optical fiber  = ---------- degree.
 DETERMINATION OF BAND GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL-
THERMISTOR

Expt. No.: Date:

Aim: To find the Band Gap of the material of the given thermistor using post office box

Apparatus: Thermistor, Thermometer, Post office box, Power supply, Galvanometer, Glass
beaker, connecting wires

Formula:

Bandgap of the given thermistor ( ⁄

) 

Symbol Explanation Unit
k Boltzmann constant J/K
RT Resistance of the thermistor 
T Temperature of thermistor °C





Procedure:

Connections are given as per the diagram ‘10’ ohm resistances are taken in P and Q then
the resistance in R is adjusted by pressing the tap key, until the deflection in galvanometer crosses
zero reading of the galvanometer, say from left to right. After finding appropriate resistances for
these two resistances in R1 which differ by 1 ohm are to be found out, such that the deflections in
galvanometer for these resistances will be on either side of zero reading of galvanometer. We
Q
know RT  R , thus keeping the resistance in Q the same, the resistance in P is changed to 10,
P
100, 1000 ohms. Thus the resistance of the thermistor is found out accurately to two decimals, at
room temperature. The lower value may be assumed to be RT. Thus the thermistor is heated by
keeping it unversed in insulating coil. For every 10oC rise in temperature, the resistance of the
thermistor is found out. The readings are entered in the tabular column.
 Table: To find the resistance of the thermistor at different temperatures:-

S. Temperature Temperature 1 Resistance Resistance Resistance Resistance 2.303

T
No of Thermistor of of log10
K  
in P () in Q () in R ()
oC 1
. Thermistor Thermistor RT ()
T=t0c+273
P
R   R 
T
Q
K

Figure: Post office box with thermistor and galvanometer

GRAPH:
 A graph is drawn between 1 in x-axis and loge RT in y-axis
T

Band gap (Eg) = 2k x slope

CALCULATION

Bandgap of the given thermistor ( ⁄

) 



RESULT:

The band gap of given semiconducting material is -------------------eV

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are semiconductors and how can you classify them?

2. Define Fermi level.
3. Define band gap or forbidden energy gap in a semiconductor material.
4. Define extrinsic semiconductor and give examples.
5. Define intrinsic or pure semiconductor and give examples.
6. Can water be used in place of oil for band gap determination?
7. How does the band gap change with temperature in semiconductors?
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF THE BAD CONDUCTOR – LEE’S DISC

Expt. No. : Date :

Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of the bad conductor by Lee’s Disc method

Apparatus: Lee’s disc apparatus, Bad conductor, Thermometers, Stop-clock, Steam boiler,
Screw gauge and Vernier caliper.

Formula

Thermal conductivity of the bad conductor

( ) w/m/k

where,
M – Mass of the metallic disc in kg
S – Specific heat capacity of the material of the disc in J/kg /K
 d 

– Rate cooling at steady temperature 2in Kelvin/sec
dt
 2
1 – Steady state temperature of steam chamber in Kelvin.
2 – Steady state temperature of Metallic disc (Lee’s disc) in Kelvin.
r – Radius of the metallic disc in metres.
h – Thickness of the metallic disc in metres.
d – Thickness of the bad conductor in metres.

Procedure

The thickness of the bad conductor and thickness of the metallic disc are determined using
a screw gauge. The radius of the metallic disc is found using vernier calipers. The mass of the
metallic disc is also found using a common balance. The observed readings are tabulated in the
respective tabulations.The Lee’s disc apparatus is suspended from a stand as shown in the Fig.
The given bad conductor (card board) is placed in between the metallic disc and steam chamber.
Two thermometers T1 and T2 are inserted in the respective holes. Steam from the steam
boiler is passed into the steam chamber until the temperature of the steam chamber and the
metallic disc are steady. The steady temperatures (1) of the steam chamber and (2) of the
metallic disc shown by the thermometers are noted.Now the card board is removed and the steam
chamber is placed in direct contact with the metallic disc. The temperature of the disc rapidly
rises.When the temperature of the disc rises about 10oC above 2oC (Steady state temperature of
the disc), the steam chamber is carefully removed, after cutting off the steam supply.
 When the temperature of the disc reaches 5oC above the steady state temperature of the
disc i.e., (2+5)oC, a stop clock is started. Time for every 1oC fall of temperature is noted until
the metallic disc attains the temperature (2 -5)oC. The observed readings are tabulated.

Fig. Time vs Temperature

Observations:

Steady state temperature of steam chamber (1) =................oC

Steady state temperature of the metallic disc (2) = ............... oC

Determination of ( )

S. No. Temperature () Temperature () Time (t)

oC
in Kelvin Seconds

Graph
A graph is drawn taking time along X axis and temperature along Y axis to obtain cooling curve.
From curve a slope is drawn to find ( )

Precautions

1. Steady state temperature shown by thermometers T1 and T2 should remain constant at least
for ten minutes.

2. The card board should be pressed between the disc and the chamber in the beginning to
remove any air inside.

3. The rate of cooling is determined at the steady state temperature only.

4. Water should not be allowed to collect in the steam chamber.

Least count of screw gauge:

(ii) To find the thickness of the card board (d) using screw gauge

LC = 0.01 mm ZC= ………division ZC = ………division

Pitch scale Head scale Observed reading OR=P.S.R Correct reading

S.no. reading (P.S.R) Reading (H.S.C) +(H.S.CxL.C) CR = OR  Z.C.
mm division mm Mm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mean d =……… 10- 3m

(iii) To find the thickness of the metallic disc (h) using screw gauge

LC = 0.01 mm ZE= ………division ZC= ………division

Pitch scale Head scale Observed reading OR=P.S.R Correct reading

S.no. reading (P.S.R) Reading (H.S.C) +(H.S.CxL.C) CR = OR  Z.C.
mm division mm Mm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mean d =……… 10- 3m

(iv) To find the diameter of the metallic disc (D) using Vernier caliper

LC = 0.01 cm ZE= ………division ZC = ………division

Main scale Vernier Scale Observed reading Correct reading

S.no. reading (M.S.R) Coincidence OR=M.S.R +(V.S.CxL.C) CR = OR  Z.C.
cm (V.S.C) division cm Cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mean d =……. 10- 2m

Mean radius of the metallic disc r = d  ……10- 2m
2
Calculation:

Mass of the metallic disc M = ............... 10- 3kg

Specific heat capacity of the material of the disc S = .............. J/kg/K
 d 
Rate cooling  at steady temperature 2oC = ............... K/s
 dt 2
Steady state temperature of steam chamber 1 = ............ oC
Steady state temperature of metallic disc 2 = ............ oC
Radius of the metallic disc r = .............. 10- 2m
Thickness of the metallic disc h = ............... 10- 2 m
Thickness of the card board d = .............. 10- 3 m.

Thermal conductivity of the bad conductor

( ) w/m/k

K =_____________ W/m/k

Result:

Thermal conductivity of the given bad conductor (card board) K = ............... W/m/K

VIVA-QUESTIONS

1. Define thermal conductivity.

2. Can this method be used for good conductors?
3. Is there any reason to take the specimen in the form of a disc?
4. Does the value of thermal conductivity depend on the dimension of the specimen?
5. What are conduction, conviction and radiations?
 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT MEASUREMENT

Expt. No. : Date :

Aim
To determine the dielectric constant of the given sample at different temperatures.

Apparatus required
The given sample, capacitance meter, dielectric sample cell, digital temperature indicator
etc.

Formula

1. The dielectric constant of the sample is given by,

r = C / C0 (No unit)
where C = capacitance of the sample (farad)
C0 = Capacitance of the air capacitor having the same area
and thickness as the sample (farad)

2. The capacitance of air capacitor is given by,

 A
C0  0 (farad)
d
where 0 = permittivity of free space
= 8.854  1012 farad / metre
A = area of the plates of the capacitor
(A = r2 : r = radius of the sample)
d = thickness of the sample (or) distance between the

plates (m)

Principle

The capacitance of a capacitor increases when it is filled with an insulating medium. The
increase in the capacitance depends on the property of the medium, called dielectric constant ().
It can be measured using either static or alternating electric fields. The static dielectric constant is
measured with static fields or with low frequency ac fields. At higher frequencies, values of
dielectric constant become frequency dependent. The dielectric constant varies with temperature
also.

Procedure
1. The given dielectric sample inside the dielectric cell in its position without forming air
gap between the plates of the sample holder.
2. Connect the thermocouple leads to a digital temperature indicator to measure the
temperature of the dielectric cell

3. Also, connect the capacitance meter to the dielectric cell

4. Connect the heater terminals of the dielectric cell to ac mains through a dimmerstat.

5. At room temperature, measure the capacitance of the sample using capacitances meter.

6. Now switch on the heater and measure the capacitance of the sample at different
temperature (in steps of 10°C starting from room temperature).

7. The dielectric constant of the sample

C
 
n
C0

8. Measure the thickness of the sample (d) using the micrometer screw attached in the
sample cell
9. Measure the diameter of the sample using a vernier caliper and determine the radius of
the sample
10. Calculate the capacitance of the air capacitor using, the relation
0 (  r 2 )
C0 
d
11. Calculate the dielectric constant of the sample at different temperatures using the
relation.
C
r  and tabulate the readings in the table
C0

12. Plot a graph by taking temperature along X axis and dielectric constant along Y axis.

6000

5000
Dielectric Constant

4000

3000

2000

1000
30 50 70 90 110 130 150
Temperature (Degree Celcius)
Dielectric Constant versus Temperature for barium titanate
 Determination of dielectric constant of the sample:

Sl.No. Temperature (°C) Capacitance Dielectric

(Farad) constant
 C 
 r  
 C 0 

Observation

The radius of the sample (r) = ............................. m

The thickness of the sample (d) = ............................. m

Calculation

The area of the plates of the capacitor =  r2 = ........... m2

The capacitance of the air capacitor,

0 A
C ............ farad
d

Result

The dielectric constants of the given sample at different temperature are measured and a
graph is plotted between the temperature and dielectric constant is ……….
 SPECTROMETER – GRATING

Expt. No: Date:

Aim: To find the wavelengths of the prominent spectral lines in the mercury (Hg) source.

Apparatus: Spectrometer, Plane transmission grating, Sodium vapour lamp, Mercury vapour
lamp, Reading lens.

Formula

Wavelength of the prominent lines in the mercury (Hg) source λ= sin °

Nn

Explanation of symbols

Symbol Explanation Unit

θ Angle of diffraction degree

n Order of diffraction (spectrum) -
N Number of lines per metre in the grating. lines/metre

Procedure

The initial adjustment of the spectrometer should be made before starting the experiment

Preliminary adjustments

 Telescope adjustment: Initially distances object should be made in the telescope. Then
telescope to be brought straight to the collimator.
 Collimator adjustment: Initially collimator window should be open and allow the light to
passes through the window and see whether the slit is thin and clear after entering into the
telescope. Now make white slit to coincide with vertical telescope crosswire. Then fix the
telescope.
 Vernier table adjustment: Release the vernier screw and rotate the vernier table and set
the vernier scale reading 0 – 0 in one side and 0 – 1800 in another side, then fix the vernier
screw

Adjustment of the grating for normal incidence

After the initial adjustments of the spectrometer are made, then the telescope is rotated by
an angle 90° (either left or right side) and fixed. The grating table is rotated until on seeing
through the telescope the reflected image of the slit coincides with the vertical cross-wire. This is
possible only when a light emerging out from the collimator is incident at an angle 45° towards
the collimator. Now light coming out from the collimator will be incident normally on the grating
(Fig.).
 Wavelengths of the spectral lines of the mercury spectrum

The slit is now illuminated by white light from mercury vapour lamp. The central
direct image will be an undispersed image. The telescope is moved on both sides of the direct
image; the diffraction pattern of the spectrum of the first order is seen. The readings are taken by
coinciding the prominent lines namely violet, green, yellow and red with the vertical cross wire.
The readings are tabulated and from this, the angles of diffraction for different colours are
determined .The wavelengths for different lines are calculated by using the given formula. The
number of lines per metre in the grating is also calculated.

Determination of wavelength (λ) of the prominent line of the mercury spectrum

LC = 1' n= N= ……..lines/metre TR = MSR + (VSC × LC)

Diffracted ray reading

Difference (2θ) Mean
Left side Right side
Colour
of Vernier-A Vernier-B Vernier-A Vernier-B λ
S.No VA = VB =
spectral TR TR TR TR θ
lines MSR VSC MSR VSC MSR VSC MSR VSC A1~A2 B1~B2
(A1) (B1) (A2) (B2)

(deg) (div) (deg) (deg) (div) (deg) (deg) (div) (deg) (deg) (div) (deg) (deg) (deg) (deg) Lines/m
Precaution

1. The grating should be held from the edges and the ruled surface should not be touched.
2. The ruled surface should face away from the collimator.

CALCULATION

Number of lines per metre in the grating=

Violet λ = sin =
Nn

Blue λ = sin =
Nn

Green λ = sin =
Nn

Yellow λ = sin =
Nn

Red λ = sin =
Nn

RESULT

(i) Number of lines drawn in the grating per metre N= .............. lines/metre.

(ii) Wavelength of various spectral lines of the mercury spectrum are

λV = .............. °

λB = ............... °

λG = ............... °

λY = ............... °

λR = ............... °
VIVA-QUESTIONS:

1. What is diffraction grating? How it is constructed? How does it produce diffraction?

2. What are requisites of a good grating?
3. Mention the different types of a grating which one is better.
4. What is grating element?
5. What is dispersive power of grating?
 SKILLED VALUES FOR EXPERIMENTS

S.
Name of the experiment Skilled values
No
1. Aluminium → 2.5×1010 nm-2
2. Brass → 3.5 to 3.4×1010 nm-2
3. Cast iron → 5.0×1010 nm-2
1 Torsional pendulum – rigidity modulus
4. Copper → 3.4 to 3.6×1010 nm-2
5. Steel(cast) → 7.6×1010 nm-2
6. Steel(mild) → 8.9×1010 nm-2
Newton’s ring – determination of focal length Refractive of plano convex lens 1.5
2
of a lens Focal length =100cm
Refractive index
1.crown glass → 1.5
3 Dispersive power of a prism-spectrometer 2.air → 1.0
3. water → 1.33
4. flint glass → 1.56
Wavelength
Helium–neon laser→ 632.8 nm
Argon laser→ 454.6 nm, 488.0 nm, 514.5 nm
4 Semidconductor laser Carbon dioxide laser→ 10.6 μm
Ruby laser→ 694.3 nm
Nd:yag laser→ 1.064 μm
Semiconductorlaser diode→ 0.4-20 μm
Density
1. Water → 1000 kgm-3
2. Copper → 8900 kgm-3
3. Steel → 7800 kgm-3
4. Brass → 8600 kgm-3
5 Ultrasonic interferometer
5. Iron → 7500 kgm-3
Compressibility
1.water → 4.59×10-10 m2n-1
2. Castor oil → 4.7×10-10 m2n-1
3. Kerosene → 7.5×10-10 m2n-1
1 .box wood → 1×1010 nm-2
Determination of young’s modulus –non-
6 2. Teak wood → 1.7×1010 nm-2
uniform bending
3 .wrought iron and steel → 20×1010 nm-2
1. Germanium → 0.67 ev
2. Silicon → 1.12 ev
Determination of band gap of a semiconductor
7 Constant & conversion factors
material
1. 1 ev→ 1.606 x 10-19 j
2. Boltzmann constant k → 1.38 x 10-23 j k-1
1. Card board → 0.04 wm-1k-1
Thermal conductivity of the bad conductor –
8 2. Ebonite → 0.7 wm-1k-1
lee’s disc
3. Glass → 1 wm-1k-1
 4. Wood & rubber → 0.15 wm-1k-1
Specific heat capacity
1. Brass → 913 jkg-1k-1
2. Copper → 385 jkg-1k-1
3. Water → 4186 jkg-1k-1
Sodium Vapour Lamp → 5893 Å
Mercury vapour lamp
1. Red → 6234 Å
2. Yellow I → 5791 Å
3. Yellow ii → 5770 Å
9 Spectrometer – Grating
4. Green → 5461 Å
5. Bluish green → 4916 Å
6. Blue → 4358 Å
7. Violet I → 4078 Å
8. Violet ii → 4047 Å
1. Water → 0.00081Nsm-2
10 Viscosity of a Liquid by Poiseuille’s Method 2. Kerosene → 0.002 Nsm-2
3. Glycerine→ 0.3094 Nsm-2
E.M.F of a Thermocouple –Potentiometer
11 E.M.F of a Thermocouple = 0.04mv
Method
1 .Box wood → 1×1010 Nm-2
Determination of Young’s Modulus –Uniform
12 2. Teak wood → 1.7×1010 Nm-2
Bending
3 .Wrought iron and steel → 20×1010 Nm-2
 A. VERNIER CALIPER

Description
The vernier caliper consists of a steel scale called the main scale (M.S) with a jaw (A)
fixed at one end as shown in fig. A second Jaw (B) carrying a vernier scale, which is capable of
moving along the main scale, can be fixed to any position by means of a screw cap S. The main
scale is graduated both in centimeters and inches.The vernier scale is divided into 10 divisions
which is equivalent to 9 main scale divisions. So the value of 1 vernier scale division (VSD) is
equal to 9/10 main scale division (MSD). The value of 1 main scale division is 0.1 cm (or) 1 mm.

Procedure
1. Determination of the Least Count (L.C.):
Least count is the smallest length that can be measured accurately by the vernier caliper. It
is the difference between a main scale division and vernier scale division.
Least Count (L.C.) = 1 Main Scale Division – 1 Vernier Scale Division

i.e., L.C. = 1 MSD -1 VSD

10 M.S.D = 1 cm
1
Value of 1 M.S.D. = /10 cm = 0.1 cm
Number of divisions on the vernier scale = 10 divisions
i.e., 10 V.S.D = 9 M.S.D
9
1 V.S.D = /10 M.S.D
9
1 V.S.D = /10 x 1/10 = 9/10 cm (1 M.S.D = 1/10 cm)
We know, L.C. = 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D.
1
= /10 - 9/100
L.C. = 0.01 cm.
2. To find zero error and zero correction
Before taking readings on the vernier caliper, we must note zero error of the vernier calipers. For
this purpose, the two jaws of the vernier caliper are pressed together.
a. No Error
If the Zero of vernier scale coincides with the zero of the main scale exactly, the instrument has n

b. Positive Zero Error

If the zero of vernier scale lies on the right side of the zero of the main scale , then error is known
as a positive error .

.
Example:
Let 2thvernier scale division coincides with a main scale division. (i.e., zero of the main scale)
Then, Zero error = Vernier coincidence x least count
= 2 x 0.01
= + 0.02 cm
Zero correction = - 0.02 cm

Least count………..cm Z.E = ±…………….divisions Z.C = ±… ................ cm

Vernier Scale
SI Main Scale Observed Reading (O.R.) Correct Reading
Coincidence
No. Reading (M.S.R) =M.S.R. + (V.S.C. x L.C.) CR=O.R.±Z.C
(V.S.C)
Unit cm div. cm cm
1.
2
3.
4.
5.

Mean =.....................cm
External diameter of the specimen =...................10-2 m
c. Negative Zero Error:
If the zero of the vernier scale lies on the left side of the zero of the main scale, then the
instrument has negative zero error.

Example :
Let 4thvernier scale division coincides with a main scale division. (i.e., zero of the main
scale )
Then, Zero error = (n – Vernier coincidence) x L.C.,
= (10 – 4) x 0.01
= - 0.06 cm
Zero correction = + 0.06 cm

3. To find the external diameter :

The given cylinder is firmly held between the two jaws. The main scale reading and
vernier coincidence are noted.Main Scale Reading (M.S.R)For Main scale reading, coincidence of
the main scale with the zero of the vernier scale is noted.

4. Vernier Scale Coincidence (V.S.C)

For vernier scale coincidence, extract coincidence of vernier scale division with the main
scale division is noted.The readings are tabulated. From the observations we can find the external
diameter of the given specimen.
 B. SCREW GAUGE

Description
It consists of a U-shaped metal frame. One end of frame carries a fixed stud Anvil
Whereas the other end is attached to a barrel (cylindrical tube) as shown in figure.1. A screw of
uniform pitch passes through one each of the frame and the barrel.
A scale graduated in millimeters is marked on the barrel along its length. It is called pitch
scale.
The screw carries a head H, which has a beveled edge. The edge is divided into 100 equal
divisions. It is called the head scale.
When the head is rotated the head scale moves on the pitch scale.

PROCEDURE

1. Determination of the Least Count ( L.C.):

Least count of the screw gauge is the distance through which the screw tip moves when the
screw is rotated through one division on the head scale.
Pitch
Least count (L.C.) =
Total number of divisions on the head scale

Distance moved by the head scale on the pitch scale

Pitch =
Number of rotations given to the head scale
To find the pitch, the head or the screw is given say 2 rotations and the distance moved by
the head scale on the pitch scale is noted. Then by using above formula, the least count of the
screw gauge is calculated.

2mm
Pitch = --------------------- = 1 mm
2
 Determination of the thickness of the given specimen

LC = 0.01 mm ZE = ………division ZC= ………division

Pitch scale Head scale Observed reading OR=P.S.R Correct reading

S.no. reading (P.S.R) Reading (H.S.C) +(H.S.CxL.C) CR = OR  Z.C.
mm division mm mm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean thickness of the specimen=. ........... mm

Thickness of the specimen= ...........x10-3 m

1mm
Least count = ----------------= 0.01 mm

100

2. To find the zero Error and Zero Correction (ZC):

Before taking readings on the screw guage, we must note zero error of the screw guage.
For this purpose, head is rotated until the two plane faces Anvil and Screw are just in contact.

a) No Error :

If the zero of the head scale coincides with the zero of the pitch scale and also lies on the
base line, then the instrument has no zero error and hence there is no zero correction.

b) Positive Zero Error :

If the zero of the head scale lies below the base line of the pitch scale, then the zero error
is +ve and zero correction is –ve( Refer fig ).

Example:
Leet 2th division of the head scale coincides with the base line of the pitch scale then,
Zero error = + 2 x 0.01
 = + 0.02 mm
Zero correction = - 0.02 mm
c) Negative Zero Error :

If the zero of the head scale lies above the base line (B.L.) of the pitch scale, then the zero
error is –ve and zero correction is +ve (Refere fig. )..

Example:
If 95th division of the head scale coincides with the base line of the pitch scale then,
Zero error = -(100 – 94) x 0.01 = -6 x 0.01 mm
= - 0.06 mm
= + 0.06 mm

3. To find the thickness of the given specimen :

The specimen is gently gripped between the faces Anvil and Screw. The pitch scale reading
and the head scale coincidence are noted. The readings are tabulated.Pitch Scale Reading
(P.S.R.):Number of pitch scale division fully completed just in front of the head scale is noted. It
is known as Pitch Scale Reading and it is measured in millimeter.Head Scale Coincidence
(H.S.C.):Coincidence of head scale division on the base line of the pitch scale is also noted from
the observations; we can find the thickness of the given specimen.
 C. TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE
Description

Travelling microscope consists of a compound microscope (fig.C.1) sliding along a

graduated vertical pillar. The vertical pillar is fixed to a horizontal base resting on screws.The
microscope can be raised or lowered along a vertical pillar by the screw S 1.The screw S2 is used to
move the pillar horizontally. The object is viewed through the eye piece E where the objective
lens O is turned towards the object. The focusing of the microscope is done by a screw attached to
the body of the microscope.
The main scale divisions are marked on the base and on the pillar. Vernier scales are
attached to the sliping microscope and to the base of the pillar.The main scale is divided into
millimeters and half a millimeters. Therefore the value of one main scale division (MSD) is 0.5
mm. The vernier scale is divided into 50 divisions which is equivalent to 49 main scale divisions.
Thus the value of one Vernier scale division (VCD) is 49/49 MSD. Travelling microscope readings
are shown if fig C.2.Note: in a typical travelling microscope, something is printed over the vernier
scale like 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 etc. Readers need not worry for the marked one, whereas they are requested
to read 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 divisions.

Determination of the horizontal distance between two lines:

LC = 0.001 cm ZE= ………division ZC = ………division

Main scale Vernier Scale Vernier Scale Reading Reading

S.no. reading (M.S.R) Coincidence (V.S.R. =V.S.C. x L.C.) TR=M.S.R. +
cm (V.S.C) division cm V.S.R.cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

PROCEDURE

1. Determination of the Least Count (L.C.):

It is the smallest length which can be measured accurately by the travelling microscope. It is the
difference between one Main Scale Division and one Vernier Scale Division.
Lease Count (L.C.) = 1 Main scale Division – Vernier Scale Division
(i.e.)L.C. = 1 M.S.D - 1 VSD
Here, 20 MSD = 1 cm
1
Value of 1 MSD = /20 cm = 0.05 cm
Number of vernier scale divisions (n) = 50 divisions
i.e., 50 V.S.D = 49 M.S.D
49
1 V.S.D = /50 MSD = 49/50 x 1/20 = 49/1000 cm
We know, L.C. = 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D.
= 1/20= 49/1000 cm
L.C. = 0.001 cm
Note : Finding zero error and zero correction in travelling microscope is similar to that of vernier
caliper. Generally no error is found so far in a travelling microscope.
2. To find the horizontal distance between two lines :
Two well separated lines are drawn on a white paper and is placed on the base plate of the
travelling microscope. The microscope is adjusted to focus the image on the line-1. On the
horizontal scale, main scale readings and vernier scale coincidence are noted. Then reading is
taken as R1.For main scale reading, coincidence of the main scale divisions with the zero of the
vernier is noted in centimeter. For vernier scale coincidence, exact coincidence of vernier scale
division with the main scale division is noted in divisions.From this we can say the Total Reading
(TR) = MSR + (VSC x LC). Now the microscope is horizontally moved to the other line 2 and
focused for the clear image. The main scale and vernier scale coincidence are noted as before.The
total reading for this position is taken as R2. The readings are tabulated and the difference
between R1 and R2 gives the distance between two lines.
D. SPECTROMETER
Description

Spectrometer is an instrument to obtain a pure spectrum. It is used to find the angle of the
prism, angle of minimum deviation, refractive index of the prism etc., A standard form of the
spectrometer is shown in Fig.
It mainly consists of three parts, viz., 1. Collimator 2. Telescope and 3. Prism table or
grating table

1. Collimator
It consists of hollow brass tube with a collimating lens (L) at one end and a vertical slit of
adjustable width at the other end.
To obtain parallel beam of light rays, the distance between the slit and lens is adjusted with the
help of a side screw attached to the collimator.
The collimator is rigidly fixed to the main part of the instrument and thus provides parallel beam
of light.

2. Telescope :
It is an ordinary refracting telescope with an objective lens near the collimator and an eye
piece at the other end. The eye piece of the telescope is fitted with cross wires and slides in a tube.
The focusing of the telescope is done by a screw attached to the side of the telescope.
The telescope is fitted on one arm of the spectrometer and can be rotated about the central axis.
The movement of the telescope can be read on a circular scale graduated in degrees with the help
of two verniers VA and VB.

Finding Readings in Spectrometer:

Vernier A Vernier B
Ray MSR VSC Total reading MSR VSC Total reading
Unit deg div. deg. deg. div. deg.
Reading

3. Prism table or Grating table :

The prism table or grating table consists of two identical metal discs separated by three
springs. These springs are adjusted with the help of three leveling screws. In order to level the
prism table, sprit level can be also used by placing this on metal disc. The prism tale can be raised
or lowered and fixed at any desired height by mean of a screw.
The whole instrument is supported on a base provided with three leveling screws.

Procedure
1. Determination of the Least Count (L.C.):
The circle in the main scale is divided into 360 equal parts in degrees. Each degree is further
divided into two parts. Thus the smallest main scale division is equal to 0.5o or 30’. The vernier
scale has 30 equal divisions that coincide with 29 divisions of the main scale.
We know, Lease Count (L.C.) = 1 Main scale Division – Vernier Scale Division
(i.e.) L.C. = 1 M.S.D - 1 VSD
2 MSD = 10
 1 MSD = 10/2 = 30’ (i.e., 10 = 60’)
L.C. = 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D.
1 MSD = 0.50 = 30’
30 VSD = 29 MSD
29
1VSD = /30 MSD =29/30 x 30’ = 29’
L.C. = 30’ - 29’ = 1’

Procedure
Initial adjustments

1. Eye Piece ( Focussing the cross – wires ):

The telescope is turned towards a white wall and the eye piece is moved inwards or
outwards until the cross wires are seen clearly.

2. Telescope ( Adjusting for parallel rays ) :

The telescope is turned towards a distant object. The distance between eye piece and
objective is adjusted by the screw until a clear image is seen on the crosswire.

3. Collimator (Adjusting for parallel rays ) :

The telescope is brought in line with the collimator. The slit is opened slightly and is
viewed through telescope. The image of the slit is illuminated by sodium light. The distance
between the slit and the collimating lens is adjusted till a clear well defined image of the slit is
obtained. The image of the slit may have a breadth of about 1 mm.

4. Prism Table or Grating Table :

 The clamping screw is released and the prism table is raised so that its upper surface is just
in level with the lower edge of the collimator .
The spirit level is placed on the prism table parallel to the line joining any two leveling
screws. Their positions are adjusted slowly till the bubble is exactly in the center of the spirit
level.
Now the spirit level is placed perpendicular to the line joining the two screws and the
bubble is brought at the centre by adjusting the third screw. The process is repeated by keeping
the spirit level at different places until the prism table is exactly horizontal.
Readings

Main Scale Reading :

For main scale reading, coincidence of the main scale with the zero of the vernier scale is
noted.
Vernier scale Reading :
For vernier scale coincidence, exact coincidence of vernier scale division with the main
scale division is noted.The readings of bothevernier A and vernier B scales are taken on the left
hand side and right hand side. The main scale reading and vernier coincidence are noted.

Total reading (TR) = MSR + (VSC x LC)

Example:TR = MSR + (VSC X LC)

= 155o + (15 x 1’)
=155015’