RADIO LABELLING
TECHNIQUES- UNIT 5
DR. SURAJIT SUR
INTRODUCTION
• When nuclear radiation passes through a gas
enclosed between two electrodes, it ionises the
gas molecules. If a potential difference is applied
across the electrodes ,the positive ions moves
towards the electron towards the positive
electrodes. Thus pulses of electric current are
produced which detects and measures the
ionising radiation. Such detectors are called ‘Gas
filled detector’ and includes ionisation chamber,
proportional counter and Geiger-Muller counter.
Contd.
• G-M (Geiger -Muller) Counter: It is basically the
combination of G-M tube and recorder.
• G-M Tube : A Geiger-Muller tube is the most
versatile and useful of the instrument s used for
detecting and measuring the energies of 𝛼−, 𝛽−,
𝛾 −, and X-rays.It is sufficiently sensitive to detect
individual 𝛼−, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 particle.It is widely used in
industry and medicines to locate radio isotopes,
and in the laboratory for comparing the activities
of radioactive specimen.
Contd.
• Working: When an ionising particle enters the G-M tube, it ionises some of the
argon atoms, forming positive ions and free electrons. Because of the shape of the
electrodes, the electrostatic field is radial and is very strong near the anode wire.
Any free electrons in this region are rapidly accelerated to cause further ionisation.
This process is cumulative, and a large “avalanche” of electrons is produced. Besides
but ,some of the free electrons colliding argon atom merely excite them .The excited
atom returns to their normal state emitting light photons. If a photon is absorbed by
another excited atom, the atom is ionised by releasing more electrons which
produces further avalanches.
• Since photons are unaffected by electric field, they can go in any direction. Hence
avalanche spreads rapidly in entire volume of the tube and an amplification as high
as 108 is reached. The total number of ions produced is now independent of the
initial no. of ions formed by the entering particle.
• The electrons being very light, are collected at once, at the anode leaving behind a
space charge due to massive, slow moving positive ions. In a short time around one
microsecond, space charge becomes enough dense to cancel the electric field round
the anode. The ionisation then stops. Therefore positive ions are drawn to the
cathode and ionisation again starts. The period during which ionisation remains
suspended is called “Dead Time”.
• Advantages of G-M counter: 1. Simple to build
2. Easily available.
• Disadvantages of G-M counter: 1. It has high
dead time, hence cannot be used for high
counting rate 2. It cannot distinguish between
the energies of two different nuclear particles.
SOLID SCINTILLATION COUNTER
• A solid scintillation counter uses a solid scintillator material like
sodium iodide (NaI) to detect and measure radiation. When
radiation interacts with the scintillator, it produces light flashes. A
photodetector, often a photomultiplier tube, converts these light
flashes into electrical signals, which can be analyzed to determine
the type and energy of the radiation.
• 1. Scintillator:
• Material:
• Solid scintillation counters typically employ inorganic crystals like
NaI (doped with thallium) as the scintillator.
• Scintillation:
• When ionizing radiation (like gamma rays or beta particles)
interacts with the scintillator, it excites the atoms within the
crystal, causing them to emit light (scintillation).
Contd.
• 2. Photodetector:
• Function:
• A photodetector, usually a photomultiplier tube (PMT), is used to
convert the light flashes into electrical signals.
• PMT:
• The PMT amplifies the weak light signals, producing an output
voltage proportional to the intensity of the scintillation light.
• 3. Signal Processing:
• Amplification: The output from the PMT is amplified to create
usable pulses for analysis.
• Counting: The amplified pulses are then counted and analyzed to
determine the type and energy of the radiation.
Contd.
• 4. Applications:
• Radiation Detection: Solid scintillation counters
are used in various applications, including:
– Radiation survey meters: Measuring radiation levels
in the environment.
– Radiometric assays: Measuring radioactivity in
samples.
– Nuclear plant safety: Monitoring radiation levels in
nuclear power plants.
– Medical imaging: Used in imaging techniques like
SPECT and PET scans.
Contd.
• 5. Advantages:
• High efficiency: Solid scintillators can efficiently detect various
types of radiation, including gamma rays and beta particles.
• Energy resolution: They can provide information about the
energy of the incident radiation.
• Wide use: They are used in a wide range of scientific and
industrial applications.
• 6. Disadvantages:
• Temperature and background radiation sensitivity: The
performance of solid scintillation counters can be affected by
temperature variations and background radiation.
• High voltage requirement: They typically require high voltages to
operate the PMT.
