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 Chapter 5

Beneficial Insects in Natural/

Organic Agro-Ecosystems and
their Utilization in Non-Chemical
Management of Pest Population
Mahesh Pathak1, Kennedy Ningthoujam1 and Bimal Kumar
Sahoo2
1
School of Crop Protection, College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences,
Central Agricultural University (Imphal), Umiam, Meghalaya
2
Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

In considering the contributions of biological pest control to a sustainable

agriculture, it may be useful first to examine briefly some of the advantages and
disadvantages of each of the major methods by which pests can be controlled.
The major methods of pest control can be grouped into three categories of
(1) physical control, (2) chemical control and (3) biological control. Biological
control depends on knowledge of biological interactions at the ecosystem,
organism, cellular, and molecular levers and often is more complicated to
manage compared with physical and chemical methods. Biological control is
also likely to be less spectacular than most physical or chemical controls but is
usually also more stable and longer lasting (Baker and Cook, 1974). Biological
control is the use of a population of one organism to reduce the population of
another organism. Biological control has been in use for at least 2000 years,
66 | Nature Supportive Farming for Ensuring Sustainability in Agriculture

but modern use started at the end of the nineteenth century (DeBach 1964;
van Lenteren and Godfray 2005). Four different types of biological control are
known: natural, conservation, classical, and augmentative biological control
(Eilen berg et al., 2001; Cock et al., 2010).
Natural biological control is an ecosystem service (Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment 2005) whereby pest organisms are reduced by naturally occurring
beneficial organisms. This occurs in all of the world’s ecosystems without any
human intervention, and, in economic terms, is the greatest contribution of
biological control to agriculture (Waage and Greathead 1988). Conservation
biological control consists of human actions that protect and stimulate the
performance of naturally occurring natural enemies. This form of biological
control is currently receiving a lot of attention for pest control. Conservation
biological control of plant diseases is focused on the role of the natural
microbiome in suppressing plant diseases in soil and crop residues, and of the
natural microbiome in and on plants in providing resilience to pest and pathogen
infection (Mendes et al., 2011; Weller et al., 2002). In classical biological control,
natural enemies are collected in an exploration area (usually the area of origin of
the pest) and then released in areas where the pest is invasive, often resulting in
permanent pest population reduction and enormous economic benefits (Cock et
al., 2010). As this was the first type of biological control deliberately and widely
practiced, it is called ‘‘classical’’ biological control (DeBach 1964).
In augmentative biological control (ABC), natural enemies (parasitoids,
predators or micro-organisms) are mass-reared for release in large numbers
either to obtain immediate control of pests in crops with a short production cycle
(inundative biological control) or for control of pests during several generations
in crops with a long production cycle (seasonal inoculative biological control)
(Cock et al., 2010; Lorito et al., 2010; Parnell et al., 2016; van Lenteren 2012).
Biological control is now being considered for an increasing number of crops and
managed ecosystems as the primary method of pest control. One reason for its
growing popularity is its record of safety during the past 100 years considered
as the era of modem biological control (Waage and Greathead, 1988). The new
tools of recombinant DNA technology, mathematical modelling, and computer
technology combined with a continuation of the more classical approaches
such as importation and release of natural enemies and improved germplasm,
breeding, and field testing should quickly move bio-control research and
technology into a new era.

Types of Beneficial Insects

Beneficial insects can be broadly categorized into three main types:
pollinators, predatory insects, and parasitoid insects. Each group plays a vital
role in biological control, agriculture, and ecosystem health.
Beneficial Insects in Natural/Organic Agro-Ecosystems and their Utilization | 67

Predatory Insects
Predatory insects actively hunt and consume other insect species, thus
controlling pest populations. Common predatory insects include ladybugs,
lacewings, ground beetles, and spiders. They can be found in both adult and
larval forms, and they target a wide array of pests, such as aphids, caterpillars,
and beetles. For instance, lacewing larvae are effective at consuming up to 200
pests in a week, making them a popular choice for biological pest control in
greenhouse environments. To maintain their populations, it is beneficial to
leave some pests in the garden, which serve as food sources for these predators.
Pollinators
Pollinators are essential for the fertilization of flowering plants, directly
influencing plant diversity and crop yields. They include a variety of insects such
as bees, butterflies, moths, wasps, flies, ants, and beetles. The role of pollinators
extends beyond simple fertilization; they are crucial for the production of
viable seeds and fruits, thereby supporting food webs and genetic diversity in
agricultural and natural landscapes. To attract pollinators to gardens, planting
a diverse range of flowering plants is recommended, with specific emphasis on
natives that provide nectar sources.
Parasitoid Insects
Parasitoid insects, such as tachinid flies and various wasps, lay their eggs
on or inside host insects. Upon hatching, the larvae consume and ultimately
kill the host. This group is particularly effective at managing pest populations,
as they target specific pests at different life stages, including eggs and larvae.
Tachinid flies, for example, are known for their role in controlling caterpillar
populations by laying eggs on or near the pests, which hatch and feed internally,
resulting in the host’s death. The presence of parasitoids not only helps in pest
control but also enhances biodiversity within ecosystems, contributing to their
overall health and resilience.
Mechanisms of Biological Control
Biological control, or biocontrol, employs various mechanisms to manage
pest populations through the use of natural enemies, which include predators,
parasitoids, competitors, and pathogens. These mechanisms can be classified
into three primary strategies: classical (importation), inductive (augmentation),
and inoculative (conservation) biological control.
Classical Biological Control
Classical biological control involves the introduction of a natural enemy
from a pest’s native habitat into a new environment with the aim of establishing
a self-sustaining population that can control pest numbers. This process typically
68 | Nature Supportive Farming for Ensuring Sustainability in Agriculture

starts with the exploration of a pest’s original habitat to collect natural enemies,
which are then quarantined, tested for potential pest characteristics, and reared
in laboratory settings before being released into the target area. A historical
example of classical biocontrol success is the introduction of the Vedalia beetle
(Rodolia cardinalis) to California in 1889 to combat the cottony cushion scale on
citrus trees, which remains an effective control agent over a century later.
Inductive Biological Control
Inductive biological control, also known as augmentation, involves the
release of large populations of natural enemies to achieve rapid pest control. This
method is particularly useful in situations where pest populations are surging,
and immediate action is required. It often complements existing natural enemy
populations and can enhance their effectiveness in reducing pest numbers in
a short period.
Inoculative Biological Control
Inoculative biological control, or conservation biological control, focuses on
maintaining and enhancing the existing populations of natural enemies within
the ecosystem. This strategy includes habitat manipulation, such as providing
refuges or alternative food sources for beneficial insects, which encourages their
presence and activity. For instance, planting specific plants that attract predators
like lady beetles or maintaining diverse crop rotations can help sustain these
beneficial species, leading to more effective pest control over time.

Types of Natural Enemies

Predators
Predatory insects and mites are significant components of biological control.
They actively hunt and consume multiple prey items throughout their life
stages. Common predators include lady beetles, lacewings, and ground beetles,
which are effective against various agricultural pests. For example, larvae of
certain syrphid flies can devour large numbers of aphids, playing a vital role
in controlling aphid populations.
Parasitoids
Parasitoids differ from traditional predators in that they develop on or
within a single host organism, ultimately leading to the host’s death. While
they may resemble true parasites, parasitoids generally match the size of their
hosts and significantly weaken them during development. They serve as an
essential mechanism in biological control, as many species target specific pest
populations, thereby reducing their numbers effectively.
Beneficial Insects in Natural/Organic Agro-Ecosystems and their Utilization | 69

Competitors
Competitors, although often overlooked in pest management discussions,
can contribute to biological control by competing with pest species for resources.
For example, certain dung beetles compete with the larval stages of pest flies
by breaking down dung, which reduces the breeding ground for these pests.
However, the application of competitive species in pest management is not
widely utilized.
Releasing of Biocontrol Agents
Farmers can release predators, parasites, or parasitoids to attack pests.
The choice of agent depends on the situation. For example, farmers can choose
between generalist predators that attacks over all types of pests, or specific
parasitoids to attack one pest species. Biocontrol is particularly well suited for
greenhouse production where pest outbreaks can be severe due to the lack of
wild beneficial organisms. Also, the greenhouse itself inhibits the dispersal of
introduced organisms.
Examples of successful biocontrol in greenhouses include:
P Herbivorous mites controlled by predatory mites (Amblyseius spp.,
Galendromus occidentalis, Neoseiulus californicus and Phytoseiulus
persimilis), predatory mirids sold under the brand name Mirical
(Macrolophus pygmaeus) and spider mite destroyers (Stethorus
punctillum).
P Thrips controlled by cucumeris mite (Neoseiulus cucumeris), another
predatory mite (Gaeolaelaps aculeifer), the minute pirate bug (Orius)
and parasites (Steinernema).
P Aphids controlled by various parasitoids (Aphelinus abdominalis,
Aphidius colemani, Aphidius ervi, and Aphidius matricariae) and predators
including aphid midge (Aphidoletes aphidimyza),two-spotladybird
(Adalia bipunctata), lacewings (Chrysoperla carnea and Chrysoperla
ryfilabris) and convergent lady beetle (Hippodamia convergens).
P Whiteflies controlled by the parasitoids, the chalcidoid wasps (Encarsia
formosa, Eretmocerus mundus and Eretmocerus eremicus), and by
predators including Whitefly lady beetle (Delphastus catalinae), Swirski-
mite (Amblyseius swirskii) and mirids (M. pygmaeus, M. caliginosus and
tobacco capsid, Nesidiocoris tenuis).

In terms of field releases, if the organisms disperse after being released,

the farmer’s investment just flies away. Less mobile biocontrol agents, such as
ladybird larvae rather than adult ladybirds, are less likely to disperse. However,
field releases of biocontrol agents.
70 | Nature Supportive Farming for Ensuring Sustainability in Agriculture

Table 5.1: Plants to attract the beneficial insects

Beneficial Pests How to Attract/Conserve

Plants Actions
Aphid midge Aphids Dill, mustard, thyme, Shelter garden
(Aphiodoletes sweet clover from strongwinds
aphidimyza) provide water in
(Larvae are a a pan filled with
phid predators) gravel
Aphid parasites Aphids Nectar-rich plants with Don’t use yellow
(Aphidius small flowers(anise, sticky traps
matricariae and caraway, dill, parsley,
others) mustard family, white
clover, Queen Anne’s
lace, yarrow)
Assassin bug Many insects, Permanent plantings for
(Reduviidae including flies, tomato shelter(e.g., hedgerows)
family) hornworms, large
caterpillars
Big eyed bugs Many insects, including Barseem and
(Geocoris spp. of other bugs, flea subterranean
Lygaeid Family) beetles, spider mites, clovers,Common knot
insect eggs and small weed
caterpillars. Also eats
seeds
Braconid wasp Armyworms, Nectar plants with small
(Braconidae cabbageworms, flowers (caraway, dill,
family) codling moths, gypsy parsley, Queen Anne’s
moths, European lace, fennel, mustard,
corn borers, beetle white clover, tansy,
larvae, flies, aphids, yarrow), sunflower,
caterpillars, other hairy vetch, buck wheat,
insects cow pea, common
knotweed, crocuses,
spearmint
Chalcid wasps Spruce budworms, Diversity of plants,
(many families, cotton bollworms, including dill, anise,
including tomato hornworms, caraway, hairy vetch,
Trichogram- corn earworms, corn spearmint, Queen
matidae) borers, codling moths, Anne’s lace, buckwheat,
other moths common knot weed,
yarrow, white clover,
tansy, cowpea, fennel,
cosmos, chervil. For
orchards: clover and
flowering weeds
Beneficial Insects in Natural/Organic Agro-Ecosystems and their Utilization | 71

Beneficial Pests How to Attract/Conserve

Plants Actions
Damsel bug Aphids, thrips, Sunflower family, alfalfa
(Nabidae family leafhoppers,
including Nabis treehoppers, small
spp.) caterpillars
Ground beetle Slugs, snails, Amaranth, white clover Permanent
(Carabidae cutworms, cabbage plantings;
family) root maggots, other mulching
moth larvae; beetle
larvaeSome prey
on Colorado potato
beetles, gypsy moth
and tent caterpillars
Lacewing, Soft-bodied insects Carrot family, sunflower Provide water
Neuroptera including aphids, family, buckwheat, corn, during dryspells
Family thrips, mealybug, holly leaf cherry
(Chrysoperla and, scale, caterpillars,
Chrysopa spp.) mites andWhite flies,
small caterpillars
Ladybird beetle Aphids, mealybugs, Carrot family,sunflower Once aphids
or ladybug spider mites, soft family,crimson clover, leave a crop,
(Hippodamia spp. scales, white flies, hairy vetch, grains and ladybird also
and others) small caterpillars native grasses, butterfly leave. To retain
weed, black locust, active ladybirds,
buck wheat, rye, hemp maintain cover
sesbania, buck thorn, crops or other
black locust hosts of aphids
or alternate prey
Mealy bug Mealybugs Carrot family, sunflower
destroyer family
(Cryptolaemus
montrouzieri)

Table 5.2: Pests and Associated Beneficials

Pest Beneficial that Attacks it

Alfalfa weevil Predatory thrips, Bathyplectes wasps, Tetrastichus incertus
Aphid Aphid midge, aphid parasitoids, syrphid fly, ladybirds, parasitic
wasp, big-eyed bug, damsel bug, mealybug destroyer, soldier
beetle, lacewing, braconid wasp, predatory thrips, rove beetle
Armyworm Big-eyedbug, braconid wasp, spined soldier bug, tachinid fly
Beetles Braconid wasp
Budmoth Predatory thrips
Cabbage looper Tachinid fly
Cabbage-root maggots Ground beetle, rove beetle
72 | Nature Supportive Farming for Ensuring Sustainability in Agriculture

Pest Beneficial that Attacks it

Cabbageworm Braconid wasp
Caterpillars in general Assassin bug, lace wing, Trichogramma and braconid wasps,
damsel bug, minute pirate bug
Codling moth Braconid wasp, predatory thrips, Trichogramma wasp
Colorado potato beetle Ground beetle, spined soldier bug
Corn ear worm Big-eyed bug, minute pirate bug, Trichogramma wasp, lacewing
Cotton bollworm Trichogramma wasp
Cutworms Ground beetle, tachinid fly
European corn borer Braconid wasp, Trichogramma wasp
Flea beetles Big-eyed bug
Flies Braconid wasp
Green stink bug Tachinid fly
Gypsy moth Braconid wasp, ground beetle, tachinid fly
Japanese beetle Tachinid fly
Leafhopper Big-eyedbug, damsel bug, minute pirate bug
Leaf miner Predatory thrips
Looper Big-eyedbug, parasitic wasps
Lygus Big-eyed bug, braconid wasp, Anaphesiole, minute pirate bug,
damsel bug
Maybeetle Tachinid fly
Mealybugs Lady bird, big-eyed bug, mealy bug destroyer, lacewing
Mexican bean beetle Spined soldier bug
Mites Lady bird, big-eyed bug, lacewing, minute pirate bug, predatory
mites, mirids
Nematodes Rove beetle
Oriental fruit moth Predatory thrips
Peacht wig borer Predatory thrips
Psyllids Big-eyed bug
Sawfly Spined soldier bug, tachinid fly
Scales Lacewing, predatory thrips
Slugs Ground beetle, parasitic nematodes
Snails Ground beetle
Soft scales Ladybird
Sowbug Tachinid fly
Spider mite Ladybird, minute pirate bug, predatory mite, predatory thrips,
spider mite destroyer
Springtails Rove beetle
Spruce budworm Trichogramma wasp
Beneficial Insects in Natural/Organic Agro-Ecosystems and their Utilization | 73

Impact on Ecosystems
Insects play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of ecosystems,
contributing significantly to various ecological services. They are vital for
pollination, nutrient cycling, and pest control, which are essential for healthy
and resilient ecosystems. Pollinating insects, such as bees and butterflies, are
particularly important as they ensure the reproduction of many plants, which in
turn supports global food production. The Food and Agriculture Organization
has highlighted that without these pollinators, we would face significant food
shortages, threatening nutritional security worldwide.

Biodiversity and Resilience

Organic farming practices are particularly effective in enhancing insect
biodiversity, as they typically avoid synthetic pesticides and herbicides. This
creates an environment where beneficial insects can thrive, leading to increased
species abundance and diversity. A study published in found that organic
farming and high plant diversity not only increase the number of beneficial
insect species but also boost their overall population density, particularly at
the local scale. This biodiversity is crucial for developing resilient ecosystems
capable of withstanding pressures from pests, diseases, and climate change.

Natural Pest Control

Beneficial insects also serve as natural pest control agents, helping to
maintain the balance within agricultural ecosystems. Predatory insects, such
as ladybugs, can consume vast quantities of harmful pests, thereby reducing
the need for chemical pesticides. Additionally, parasitic insects like parasitic
wasps lay their eggs on or within pest species, using them as nurseries for their
young. By fostering a diverse population of these beneficial insects, farmers can
effectively manage pest populations while minimizing environmental impacts.

Role in Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling

Insects are integral to decomposition processes, breaking down organic
matter and recycling nutrients back into the soil. Decomposers, including
beetles and earthworms, transform plant and animal remains into nutrient-rich
compost, which enhances soil fertility and supports plant growth. This nutrient
redistribution is vital for maintaining healthy soils and promoting balanced
ecosystems.

Climate Change Implications

The ongoing effects of climate change are increasingly impacting insect
populations and their roles in ecosystems. Changes in temperature and habitat
can disrupt insect life cycles, affecting their distribution and phenology. As
climate change progresses, it is anticipated that these shifts will also influence
the natural enemies of pest insects, complicating biological control efforts and
74 | Nature Supportive Farming for Ensuring Sustainability in Agriculture

the overall health of ecosystems. Understanding and mitigating these impacts

is essential for preserving the critical functions insects perform within their
habitats.
Table 5.3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Biocontrol Agents

Description Advantages Disadvantages Ideal situation

Releasing Releasing Simple Organisms may High value
organisms predators, Can be highly leave the crop crops
parasitoids or effective, Can be expensive Closed
parasites particularly for environment
Often a lag time
eggs and larvae for delivery of (greenhouse)
Can target one commercial product
or several pest Lag time between
species application and effect
Can create new
problems (e.g.,
beneficial become
pests)
Can harm other
beneficial
Released organisms
might not reproduce
and frequent
releases are needed
Providing Providing year- Can support Long lag time Works in
beneficials round supply of many types between creating various
food and shelter of beneficial pests environments
to maintain organisms Might provide habitat from fields
populations of Provides other for other pests to market
wild beneficial benefits (e.g., gardens to
Often not targeted at greenhouses
attracting one pest
pollinators; Most valuable
improving Efficacy varies– preventing pest
biodiversity; unpredictable outbreaks
may reduce Can be difficult
erosion) or costly to get
Can be self- perennial insectary
sustaining for established
years
Can be free or
inexpensive
Beneficial Insects in Natural/Organic Agro-Ecosystems and their Utilization | 75

Description Advantages Disadvantages Ideal situation

Bio- Applying a Simple to apply Can harm beneficial High-value
pesticides substance Can be highly organisms crops
derived from effective at Can be expensive Serious
natural sources various life outbreaks
that harms the Effect is short-lived
stages of the Most effective
pests pests Pests may develop
resistance to when applied
Fast-acting biopesticide to immature
Can target one pests
pastor a group
of pests
Can be stored-
ready to use
when needed

Challenges and Considerations

The implementation of biological control using beneficial insects faces
various challenges and considerations that must be addressed to ensure effective
pest management.
Complexity of Interactions
One significant challenge in biological control is the complex interactions
between pests, their natural enemies, and the ecosystem. Several studies indicate
that while certain practices can positively impact biocontrol performance,
the efficacy often varies based on specific case scenarios and the intricate
relationships at play between different species. Disruptions to conservation
biological control can arise from spatio-temporal asynchrony in pest and enemy
activity, as well as interspecies interactions that may lead to weakened control
of pests.
Timing and Resource Availability
When incorporating insectary plantings to support natural enemies,
careful consideration must be given to the timing of flowering plants. It is
crucial to ensure that floral resources are present when needed, as well as to
evaluate whether these flowers will attract natural enemies to the target pests or
inadvertently draw them away. The characteristics of the natural enemies, such
as their response to pest presence, also play a critical role in their effectiveness.
Invasive Species and Ecosystem Risks
The introduction of natural enemies from other regions presents its own
set of challenges. Exotic invasive pests, such as the emerald ash borer, have
prompted efforts to import their natural enemies to control them. However, this
76 | Nature Supportive Farming for Ensuring Sustainability in Agriculture

approach can result in unintended ecological consequences, including potential

harm to non-target species and overall biodiversity. Additionally, regulations
surrounding the introduction of these organisms can often be ineffective, further
complicating their implementation in pest management strategies.
Implementation of Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
For successful biological control, it is essential that these efforts be integrated
into a comprehensive Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach. Scouting
and monitoring become increasingly vital when employing biocontrol methods,
as they help determine if the beneficial insects are effectively managing the
pest populations. If the natural enemies are not achieving the desired level of
control, pesticide application may still be necessary.
Educational and Practical Limitations
A lack of knowledge among farmers and growers regarding beneficial
insects and their management can hinder the adoption of biological control
methods. Furthermore, many beneficial insects, while often naturally occurring,
may not require purchase if growers design their production systems to
attract and sustain them. Farmscaping, which involves creating habitats that
support the survival and reproduction of beneficial organisms, can enhance
the effectiveness of these insects. However, this requires a shift in mindset and
practices, which can be challenging to achieve within established agricultural
systems.

Case Studies and Examples

Successful Biological Control Programs
Biological control programs have a long history of successfully managing
pest populations through the introduction of natural enemies. One of the earliest
and most notable examples occurred in the late 1800s with the introduction of
the vedalia beetle (Rodolia cardinalis) and a parasitoid fly to control the cottony
cushion scale (Icerya purchasi), which was devastating the California citrus
industry at the time. This initiative resulted in the complete control of the cottony
cushion scale within a few years, demonstrating the effectiveness of classical
biological control methods in agricultural settings.
Another significant case involved the management of the alfalfa weevil
(Hypera postica), an introduced pest that posed a serious threat to forage
crops. The introduction of various natural enemies, including parasitoids and
predatory insects, led to a remarkable reduction in pest damage. Approximately
20 years post-introduction, the acreage treated for alfalfa weevil in the North
Eastern United States decreased by 75 percent, illustrating the long-term benefits
of biological control strategies in sustainable agriculture.
Beneficial Insects in Natural/Organic Agro-Ecosystems and their Utilization | 77

Ladybug Behavior and Environmental Preferences

Research has also highlighted the role of ladybugs (family Coccinellidae) as
effective biological control agents, particularly in managing aphid populations.
A study investigating ladybug attraction to various environmental choices found
that their taxis, or movement toward favorable conditions, was strongest in
environments resembling their preferred habitats, such as those with abundant
melon crops. The results indicated that environmental choices significantly
influence ladybug behavior, thereby enhancing their effectiveness as biological
control agents in agricultural ecosystems.
These case studies underscore the critical role that beneficial insects play
in biological control programs, demonstrating their efficacy in managing pest
populations while minimizing the need for chemical pesticides. The successful
integration of these natural predators into agricultural practices continues to
be a valuable strategy for sustainable pest management.

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