Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

OFFICE of the VICE PRESIDENT for ACADEMIC AFFAIRS
College of Science
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

Name: Lebico, Jayson R.

Year & Section: BS Biology 3-5 PB
Student Number: 2022-04512-MN-0

Laboratory Activity 3: The Plant Cells

INTRODUCTION

The cell is the basic unit of life, capable of self-reproduction, mutation, and response to stimuli.
It contains both living and non-living components that perform specialized functions, demonstrating
compartmentalization.

Shortly after division, a young cell undergoes a period of growth, accompanied by biochemical
processes that shift in pace and direction. These processes lead to changes in the types, numbers,
and sizes of organelles. Organelles are distinct, membrane-bound structures within the cell that carry
out specific functions.

In general, the plant body can be classified into three types of cells: parenchyma, collenchyma,
and sclerenchyma (which includes sclereids and fibers). These cells are organized into tissues. Tissues
are composed of cells of one or more types that share a common origin and have one or more related
functions. Structurally, tissues can be categorized as simple or complex.

OBJECTIVES

This activity reintroduces students to the various types of cells found in the plant body. Its
objective is to familiarize students with the readily observable characteristics of different plant cells.

METHODOLOGY

This laboratory activity consists of different activities that revolve about identifying and classifying
different plant cell organelles through their distinctive morphological and anatomical structures.
Moreover, the researchers apply their basic skills in freehand sectioning using razor blade, water, and
the different plant specimens acquired in different environments. After the activity, a post-laboratory
report was conducted to assess the depth of the researchers’ knowledge about plant cells. Guide
questions in the laboratory manual also aided the researchers in answering all the questions related to
the activity.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Cell Wall

One of the prominent and distinguishable organelles that can be found only in the plant cell is
the cell wall. By definition, a cell wall is a specialized extracellular layer that surrounds the plasma
membrane and acts as an additional selective barrier to every molecule that will pass through the plant
cell (Fry, 2016). It provides rigidity, structural support, and protection to plant cells. It is primarily found
in plants and fungi and its composition varies among organisms; for instance, plant cell walls are mainly
composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. The plant cell wall is a complex structure that is
 Laboratory Activity 3 | BIOL 313: Plant Morpho-Anatomy

consisted of several key components: (1) the primary cell wall or the outermost layer formed during cell
growth, composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin, allowing for flexibility and expansion;
(2) the middle lamella, a pectin-rich layer that acts as a cementing substance between adjacent cells,
providing cohesion and structural integrity; and (3) the secondary cell wall, which is thicker and more
rigid than the primary wall, often containing lignin to provide additional mechanical strength and
waterproofing (Bellairs, 2021; Costa & Plazanet, 2016).

Figure 1. Inner epidermis of Allium Figure 2. Inner epidermis of Allium Figure 3. Inner epidermis of Allium
cepa (onion) bulb viewed under cepa (onion) bulb viewed under cepa (onion) bulb viewed under oil
low-power objective (LPO) high-power objective (HPO) immersion objective (OIO)

Additionally, there are structures called pits, which are small depressions or thin areas in the cell
wall that facilitate communication and transport between adjacent cells. They consist of a pit membrane
that separates the cytoplasm of neighboring cells and a pit aperture through which substances can
pass (Crang et al., 2018). Furthermore, primary pit fields are specialized regions in the primary cell wall
where pits are concentrated, typically found in young, actively growing tissues (Stevens et al., 2024).
These areas contain numerous plasmodesmata—microscopic channels that traverse the cell wall—
allowing for direct cytoplasmic connections between adjacent cells, which enables the exchange of
nutrients, hormones, and other signaling molecules essential for coordinated growth and development.

Protoplast (Protoplastic Parts)

A. Cytoplasm

Figure 3. Plasmolysis in Rhoeo spathacea (bangka- Figure 4. Plasmolysis in Rhoeo spathacea (bangka-
bangkaan) epidermis using hypertonic I2KI solution bangkaan) epidermis using hypertonic I2KI solution
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 Laboratory Activity 3 | BIOL 313: Plant Morpho-Anatomy

under low-power objective (LPO) under high-power objective (HPO)

Cytoplasm is a gelatinous substance that fills the interior of a cell, lying between the cell
membrane and the nucleus. It is composed mainly of water, salts, and organic molecules, and serves
as the medium in which organelles are suspended. In eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm encompasses
both the cytosol (the fluid portion) and various organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
and ribosomes (Berg et al., 2020; Alberts et al., 2022). Plasmolysis is a process that occurs in plant
cells when they are exposed to a hypertonic solution, leading to the contraction of the protoplast as it
pulls away from the cell wall. This phenomenon results from water loss due to osmosis, where water
moves out of the cell, causing a decrease in turgor pressure (Lang et al., 2014). As the protoplast
shrinks, it detaches from the rigid cell wall, creating gaps between them. This process is typically
reversible; if a plasmolyzed cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, water will re-enter the cell through
osmosis, allowing the protoplast to re-expand and reattach to the cell wall in a process known as
deplasmolysis (Cheng et al., 2017). However, if the hypertonic conditions persist for too long, it can
lead to irreversible damage and cytorrhysis, where the cell wall collapses entirely. Thus, plasmolysis
serves as a critical indicator of osmotic balance within plant cells and highlights their reliance on turgor
pressure for structural integrity (Biology Online, 2022).

a. Cytoplasmic Streaming

Cytoplasmic streaming, also known as cyclosis, is the directed flow of cytoplasm within a
cell (Nebenführ, 2020). This phenomenon is particularly prominent in larger eukaryotic cells,
such as those in plants and some protists. Cytoplasmic streaming facilitates the movement of
organelles, nutrients, and other cellular components, thereby enhancing the efficiency of
intracellular transport. In plant cells, chloroplasts utilize this streaming to optimize their exposure
to light. When light conditions change, chloroplasts can migrate toward areas of higher light
intensity to maximize photosynthesis or move away from excessive light to avoid photodamage
(Goldstein & Van De Meent, 2015). This movement is not random; it is highly regulated and can
occur in any direction based on the prevailing light conditions.

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 Laboratory Activity 3 | BIOL 313: Plant Morpho-Anatomy

Figure 5. Cyclosis or cytoplasmic streaming phenomenon in activated Hydrilla leaf under scanning objective

B. Plastids

Plastids are double-membrane-bound organelles found in the cells of plants and algae, playing
crucial roles in the synthesis and storage of food. They are involved in various metabolic processes,
including photosynthesis, pigment synthesis, and the storage of starches, proteins, and lipids (Sierra
et al., 2023).

A B C

D E F
Figure 6. Illustrations of different plastids observed under high-power objectives. CHLOROPLASTS. (A)
Hydrilla leaf. (B) Peperomia pellucida leaf. CHROMOPLASTS. (C) Hibiscus rosa-sinensis petal. (D) Solanum
lycopersicum mesocarp. (E) Capsicum annuum mesocarp. LEUCOPLAST. (F) Solanum tuberosum pith

Plastids can be classified into three main types based on their development stage and the
presence or absence of pigments. Firstly, the chloroplasts or the green plastids that contain chlorophyll,
the pigment responsible for photosynthesis. Chloroplasts, as observed in Figure 6A and 6B are
primarily found in the mesophyll of leaves and are essential for converting light energy into chemical
energy through the process of photosynthesis (Hong & Cho, 2018). Next, the chromoplasts observed
in Figure 6D-E. These plastids are responsible for synthesizing and storing carotenoid pigments, which
give fruits and flowers their vibrant colors (Sun et al., 2017). Chromoplasts can develop from
chloroplasts as leaves age or when fruits ripen, serving to attract pollinators and seed dispersers.
Lastly, the leucoplasts shown in Figure 6F. These are colorless plastids that lack pigments and are
primarily involved in the storage of food substances (Chu & Li, 2015). Leucoplasts can be further

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 Laboratory Activity 3 | BIOL 313: Plant Morpho-Anatomy

categorized into: (1) amyloplasts that can store starch like in Figure 6F; (2) elaioplasts that can store
fats and oils; and (3) proteinoplasts that can store proteins.

C. Nucleus

The nucleus in a plant cell is a vital organelle that serves as the control center for cellular
activities, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction. Typically, the nucleus is located centrally
within the cell, although it can also be found in peripheral positions depending on the cell type and its
specific function.

Unlike animal cell’s nucleus that is prominent in the center due to its size, the plant cell’s nucleus
is generally smaller and placed on rear end of the cell, pushed by the central vacuole on the edge of
the cell. The significant structure observed within the nucleus is the nucleolus, the dark portion inside
the nucleus which is responsible for synthesizing ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and assembling ribosomes,
essential for protein synthesis (Dubois & Boisvert, 2016).

Figure 7. Epidermis of A. cepa (onion) treated with I2KI solution under the high-
power objective (HPO)

Protoplast (Nonprotoplastic Parts)

A. Vacuole

The vacuole is a prominent organelle in plant cells, playing multiple crucial roles in maintaining
cellular function and overall plant health. As observed in Figure 8, the vacuole typically occupies a
significant portion of the cell's interior, often comprising 30% to 90% of the cell's volume, depending on
the cell type and its physiological state (Tan et al., 2019). Surrounded by a membrane known as the
tonoplast, the vacuole regulates the movement of ions and molecules in and out of its interior, which
contains cell sap—a mixture of water, salts, sugars, organic acids, and other substances (Tatomir &
Klucevsek, 2023). This composition allows vacuoles to perform several essential functions: they serve
as storage sites for nutrients (such as sugars and amino acids), ions (like potassium and calcium),
waste products, and pigments that contribute to flower coloration. By filling with water, vacuoles create
turgor pressure against the cell wall, which is vital for maintaining cell shape and structural integrity,
helping support the plant against gravity. Additionally, vacuoles play a role similar to lysosomes in
animal cells by breaking down complex molecules and storing waste products until they can be
disposed of or recycled.

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 Laboratory Activity 3 | BIOL 313: Plant Morpho-Anatomy

Figure 8. Abaxial epidermis of R. spathacea (bangka-bangkaan) leaf

mounted in water

They also maintain an acidic environment (pH around 5) compared to the cytoplasm (pH around
7.2), which is important for activating enzymes involved in metabolic processes and degrading
unwanted materials. Furthermore, vacuoles help plants respond to biotic and abiotic stress by
sequestering harmful substances or storing protective compounds. In summary, the vacuole is a
multifunctional organelle essential for storage, structural support through turgor pressure, waste
management, pH regulation, and stress response (Rea, 2018)

B. Ergastic Substances

Ergastic substances are non-living components found in plant cells, primarily serving as storage
materials, secretory products, and waste products (Simon & Nayagam, 2019). These substances can
be organic or inorganic and are typically located in vacuoles, the cell wall, or associated with
protoplasmic components. Ergastic substances can be categorized into three main types: reserve
materials, which include carbohydrates like starch and cellulose that serve as energy stores; secretory
materials, such as pigments (like chlorophyll), enzymes, and essential oils; and excretory materials,
which consist of waste products like tannins and mineral crystals that plants cannot utilize (BYJUS,
2022).

a. Starch Grains

A B C

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 Laboratory Activity 3 | BIOL 313: Plant Morpho-Anatomy

D E

Figure 9. Illustrations of different ergastic substances observed under high-power objectives. (A) Phaseolus
germinated seed. (B) Oryza sativa caryopsis. (C) Zea mays caryopsis. (D) Solanum tuberosum tuber. (E)
Ipomea batatas root

Starch grains are insoluble particles formed in plant cells as storage forms of glucose, primarily
synthesized in amyloplasts (Fatokun, 2019). They typically consist of two main components: amylose,
a linear chain of glucose molecules, and amylopectin, a branched form of starch that contributes to the
grain's semi-crystalline structure (Cornejo-Ramírez et al., 2018). Their size, shape, and structure vary
significantly among different plant species. For instance, starch grains in Phaseolus germinated seeds
(Figure 9A) are small and oval with a single hilum, serving as energy reserves during germination. In
Oryza sativa (Figure 9B), they are larger, circular, and exhibit a "beads-on-a-string" appearance due to
their compound structure. Zea mays starch grains (Figure 9C) are irregular, semi-round, and smooth,
characterized by a centered hilum. In Solanum tuberosum (Figure 9D), the grains are larger with an
eccentric hilum and a distinctive "guitar pick" shape, while Ipomea batatas (Figure 9E) starch grains
are smaller and irregularly shaped with similar eccentricity. This diversity in starch grain morphology
reflects each plant's adaptations for efficient energy storage and utilization.

b. Crystals

In plant cells, crystals are commonly found as ergastic substances, primarily composed of
calcium oxalate, and they serve various functions such as storage, regulation of calcium levels, and
protection against herbivores (Cuéllar-Cruz et al., 2020). However, there are some plant crystals that
are made up of calcium carbonate.

A B

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 Laboratory Activity 3 | BIOL 313: Plant Morpho-Anatomy

C D

Figure 10. Illustrations of different crystals observed under high-power objectives. RAPHIDES. (A) Colocasia
petiole. STYLOIDS. (B) Eichornia petiole bases. CYSTOLITHS. (C) Ficus leaf blade. DRUSES. (D) Taberna
midrib.

Calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) and calcium oxalate (CaC₂O₄) crystals are two distinct types of
biominerals found in plants, each with unique properties and functions. Calcium carbonate typically
forms in the form of calcite, aragonite, or vaterite, and is characterized by its rhombohedral or
scalenohedral crystal shapes (Karabourniotis et al., 2020). It is often found in structures like cystoliths
and druses within plant tissues, contributing to structural support and calcium regulation. In contrast,
calcium oxalate crystals can appear as raphides, styloids, or druses and are primarily involved in waste
storage and defense mechanisms against herbivores due to their sharp edges (Konyar et al., 2014).
Calcium oxalate formation occurs in specialized cells called crystal idioblasts and is dependent on the
presence of oxalic acid and calcium ions (Lawrie et al., 2023). Among the different types of crystals,
raphides are needle-like structures that can be found in various plant tissues such as in Colocasis in
Figure 10A; they are thought to deter herbivores due to their sharp shape. Styloids are elongated
crystals that often appear in clusters and can also contribute to the plant's defense mechanisms as
observed in Eichornia (Figure 10B). Cystoliths, presented in Figure 10C, are larger crystals of calcium
carbonate, typically form in specific cells and may play a role in calcium regulation within the plant. This
can be observed on the leaf blade of Ficus. Lastly, druses are aggregates of smaller crystals that often
resemble glistening diamonds and are commonly found in the vacuoles of certain plant tissues like
Figure 10D featuring the midrib of Taberna.

Plant Cell Types

A. Parenchyma Cells

A B C

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 Laboratory Activity 3 | BIOL 313: Plant Morpho-Anatomy

D E F
Figure 11. Illustrations of different parenchyma cells observed under high-power objectives. (A) Coleus green
stem. (B) Euphorbia green leaf. (C) Selaginella leaf. (D) Bryophyte (moss). (E) Hydrilla marginal cells. (F)
Daucus carota cross-section

Parenchyma cells are a type of simple permanent tissue in plants, characterized by their thin
cell walls and living protoplasts (Morris et al., 2015). These cells are versatile and adaptable, serving
multiple functions such as storage, photosynthesis, and secretion. Presented in Figure 11 are the
different types of parenchymal cells found in different plant tissues of various plant species.
Parenchyma is found throughout various plant structures, including the mesophyll of leaves, the cortex
and pith of stems and roots, and the flesh of fruits. The cells typically have a polyhedral or isodiametric
shape and contain large central vacuoles that store water, nutrients, and waste products. Due to their
ability to divide even after reaching maturity, parenchyma cells play a crucial role in wound healing and
regeneration within plants.

B. Collenchyma Cells

Collenchyma cells are a type of living plant tissue characterized by their elongated shape and
unevenly thickened primary cell walls, which provide structural support and flexibility to growing parts
of the plant, such as stems and leaves (Chen et al., 2019). These cells are primarily found just beneath
the epidermis in herbaceous plants, where they form a supportive layer that allows for growth and
movement without restricting expansion. The thickening of the cell walls is mainly composed of
cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin, which gives collenchyma its distinctive mechanical properties
(Chen et al., 2017). Collenchyma cells are particularly important in young, growing tissues because
they can stretch and elongate as the plant grows, thereby maintaining support while allowing for
flexibility. This adaptability makes collenchyma essential for the structural integrity of non-woody plants,
helping them withstand mechanical stress while promoting growth.

a. Angular Collenchyma

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 Laboratory Activity 3 | BIOL 313: Plant Morpho-Anatomy

Figure 12. Illustrations of different angular collenchyma cells observed under high-power objectives. Petiole
of (A) Colocasia, (B) Coleus, and (C) Eleusine

Depicted in Figure 12 are the first type of collenchyma cells—angular collenchyma. It is the most
common type, where the thickening occurs at the angles where cells meet, resulting in a structure that
lacks intercellular spaces. This arrangement provides significant mechanical resistance, making it
particularly effective in supporting stems and petioles during growth. The thickened corners act like
pillars, allowing for flexibility while maintaining structural integrity.

b. Lacunar Collenchyma

Figure 13. Illustrations of different lacunar collenchyma cells observed under high-power objectives. (A)
Lactuca sativa stem, (B) Ixora midrib

Figure 13 shows the next type of collenchyma cells—the lacunar collenchyma. This collenchyma
cell features intercellular spaces within its structure. In this type, the thickening is more pronounced at
the areas adjacent to these spaces, which allows for air circulation and flexibility. This type is often
found in the stems of certain plants, such as Lactuca sativa, where it contributes to both support and
gas exchange.

c. Lamellar Collenchyma

Figure 14. Illustration of lamellar collenchyma cells in Euphorbia

observed under high-power objectives.

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 Laboratory Activity 3 | BIOL 313: Plant Morpho-Anatomy

Lastly, the lamellar collenchyma, also known as plate collenchyma. Illustrated in Figure 14,
lamellar collenchyma has thickened tangential walls arranged in ordered rows. This organization
enhances its ability to support plant structures while allowing for some degree of flexibility. Lamellar
collenchyma is typically found in specific regions of stems and leaves where additional support is
necessary.

C. Sclerenchyma Cells

Sclerenchyma cells are a type of supportive tissue in plants, characterized by their thick, lignified
secondary cell walls that render them rigid and non-stretchable (Jarvis, 2012). These cells are typically
dead at maturity, meaning they lack protoplasts, which allows them to provide maximum mechanical
support to various plant structures. Sclerenchyma is primarily found in non-growing regions of plants,
such as the bark and mature stems, where it contributes to the overall strength and durability of the
plant. There are two main types of sclerenchyma cells: fibers and sclereids.

a. Sclereids

Sclereids are specialized cells within the sclerenchyma tissue of plants, characterized by
their thick, lignified secondary cell walls and typically dead state at maturity. They serve primarily
to provide mechanical support and protection to various plant structures (Behera &
Ramachandran, 2021). There are several basic types of sclereids, some are presented in Figure
16.

A B
Figure 15. Illustrations of different sclereids observed under high-power objectives. (A) Phaseolus macerated
seed coat’s macrosclereids and osteosclereids. (B) Nymphae odorata astosclereids.

Each possessed distinct shapes and functions: (1) brachysclereids, also known as stone
cells, are isodiametric and contribute to the gritty texture in fruits like pears; (2) macrosclereids
are elongated and columnar, commonly found in the seed coats of legumes, helping restrict
water uptake (Figure 15A); (3) osteosclereids, or bone cells, have a distinctive hourglass shape
and are typically located beneath the epidermis of seeds and leaves (Figure 15A); (4)
astrosclereids are star-shaped with branched arms, found in the mesophyll of leaves, particularly
in aquatic plants such as in Nymphaea odorata leaves in Figure 15B; and (5) trichosclereids,
which are elongated and hair-like, can be found in the leaves and aerial roots of certain species
like Monstera (Selvam, 2018). Each type of sclereid contributes to the overall strength and
resilience of plant tissues, playing a crucial role in their structural integrity and defense
mechanisms.
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 Laboratory Activity 3 | BIOL 313: Plant Morpho-Anatomy

b. Fibers

Fibers are elongated, supportive cells found in plants, primarily classified as a type of
sclerenchyma. They are characterized by their thick, lignified secondary cell walls, which provide
structural support and strength to various plant organs (Célino et al., 2014). There are two basic
types of fibers: intraxylary fibers and extraxylary fibers (University of Vigo - Department of
Functional Biology and Health Sciences, 2022). Intraxylary fibers are located within the xylem
and include two subtypes: libriform fibers, which are true fibers with simple pits, and fiber
tracheids, which possess bordered pits and contribute to water conduction as well as support.
On the other hand, extraxylary fibers are found outside the xylem in tissues such as the cortex
or phloem. These include bast fibers, derived from the inner bark of plants like jute and flax,
known for their strength and use in textiles, and leaf fibers, such as those from sisal or abaca,
which are valued for their durability.

The fibers from Gossypium hirsutum and Ceiba pentandra are classified as bast fibers,
specifically seed fibers, because they originate from the seed hairs of the cotton plant.
Meanwhile, the fiber of Musa textilis is also considered as bast fibers but specifically, a leaf fiber
due to its location on the plant body. Shown in Figure 16, the Musa textilis fiber is generally
larger than the two aforementioned. Moreover, Gossypium hirsutum and Ceiba pentandra may
look similar but microscopically, the fiber of Gossypium hirsutum is more irregularly-shaped than
the fiber of Ceiba pentandra that has a smooth margin and noodle-like appearance due to its
cylindrical shape.

Figure 16. Illustrations of fibers observed under high-power objectives. (A) Musa textilis. (B) Ceiba pentandra.
(C) Gossypium hirsutum

c. Other Sclerenchyma Cells

Figure 17. Illustrations of other different sclerenchyma cells observed under high-power objectives. (A)
Annona stem, (B) Coffea stem. (C) Citrus root

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 Laboratory Activity 3 | BIOL 313: Plant Morpho-Anatomy

In Annona, sclerenchyma cells are typically found in the form of fibers and sclereids, providing
mechanical support to the stem. These cells have thick, lignified walls that help the plant withstand
bending and compression, which is crucial for maintaining stability as the plant grows. The presence of
both fibers and stone cells (brachysclereids) contributes to the overall toughness of the fruit, making it
resistant to physical damage. For Coffea, sclerenchyma fibers are also prominent as these fibers are
elongated and provide tensile strength, allowing the coffee plant to support its branches and withstand
environmental stressors such as wind. The lignified walls of these fibers enhance their rigidity,
contributing to the overall structural support of the plant. Meanwhile, the Citrus roots’ sclerenchyma
cells form a distinctive hypodermis composed of thick-walled cells that provide mechanical protection
and support to the root system. These sclerenchyma cells are crucial for maintaining root integrity as
they grow through varying soil conditions. The lignified nature of these cells helps prevent damage from
soil compaction and other environmental factors.

Table 1. Differences between the three primary plant cells.

Defining Characteristics
Plant Cell
Types Location on the
Distinguishing Features Function
Plant Body

● Storage of food and

● Thin-walled, living
● Found in most water
cells
plant organs ● Photosynthesis (in
Parenchyma ● Composed of
including stems, chloroplast-containing
Cells cellulose
roots, leaves, cells)
● Can differentiate into
and fruits ● Healing and repair of
other cell types
tissues

● Thickened primary ● Provides flexible support

● Primarily located
cell walls to growing parts of the
in young stems
Collenchyma ● Living cells at plant
and petioles,
Cells maturity ● Helps in photosynthesis
beneath the
● Irregularly shaped due to chloroplast
epidermis
cells presence

● Thick, lignified
● Found in mature ● Provides rigid support
secondary walls
tissues such as and protection
Sclerenchyma ● Generally dead at
wood, seed ● Contributes to the
Cells maturity
coats, and fruit mechanical strength of
● Can be fibers or
stones plants
sclereids

In summary, parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma have their own characteristics that
set them apart. These plant cells have their contribution and function to a certain plant. The differences
between parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells in terms of their distinguishing features,
location on the plant body, function is presented and simplified in the table above

CONCLUSIONS

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 Laboratory Activity 3 | BIOL 313: Plant Morpho-Anatomy

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