Design of machine elements
unit-2
Stress distribution in a machine component having
uniform cross sectional area
Stress distribution in a machine component
having non-uniform cross sectional area
Stress concentration:
Kt is called theoretical stress concentration factor
Reasons for stress concentration
Methods to reduce stress concentration
• By providing fillet at sharp corners
• By providing undercuts and notches
• Drilling additional holes for shafts
• By providing multiple notches and holes
• Reducing stress concentration in threaded members
Effect of stress concentration on type of material
1. Ductile material under static load
when the stress in the vicinity of the discontinuity reaches the yield point, there is plastic
deformation, resulting in a redistribution of stress. This plastic deformation is local and restricted to
very small area in the component. There is no perceptible damage to the part as whole . Therefore
it is a common practice to ignore the theoretical stress concentration factor for components that
are made of ductile materials and subjected to static load.
2. Ductile materials under variable load
when the load is fluctuating, the stress at the discontinuity may exceed the endurance limit
and in that case, the component may fail by fatigue.
endurance limit is less than yield strength, so redistribution of stresses is not taken place
when stress at discontinuity reaches endurance strength( no yielding at that point).
3. Brittle materials
The effect of stress concentration is more severe in case of brittle materials due to their
inability to plastic deformation. Stress concentration factors are used for both static and variable
loads of brittle materials.
Numerical problems on stress concentration
1. Calculate the maximum stress induced in a plate having a centre hole of
diameter 12mm. Length, height and thickness of the plate are 200mm, 60mm
and 10mm respectively. Take theoretical stress concentration factor as 2.5. the
plate is subjected to an axial pull of 12 kN.
Variable stresses
There are three types of mathematical models for cyclic stresses.
(completely reversed stresses)
Design of machine elements under completely reversed stresses
Endurance limit(or) endurance strength(σe):
The endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of completely reversed
stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of cycles without fatigue
failure.
How to determine the endurance limit of a material?
Note: Endurance limit of a material is determined
by conducting an experiment with the help
“Rotating beam fatigue testing machine”
Rotating beam fatigue testing machine
• Standard specimen is tested on a rotating beam fatigue testing machine. Stress amplitude is changed
by varying the weights.
• For a particular stress amplitude, the number of cycles before the appearance of a first fatigue crack
is recorded.
• In each test two readings are taken 1. stress amplitude 2. number of stress cycles
Stress amplitude vs Number of stress cycles(S-N) curve for ferrous materials
Note: since the fatigue test can not be
conducted for unlimited or infinite
number of cycles, 106 cycles are
considered as a sufficient number of
cycles to define the endurance limit.
Stress amplitude vs Number of stress cycles(S-N) curve for Non-ferrous materials
Note: Endurance limit is not a property of a material. It is affected by many factors.
Factors affecting endurance limit:
• Type of loading i.e., reversed axial or reversed bending or reversed torsional
• Surface finish of the machine component
• Size of a machine component
• Reliability
• Temperature
• Impact Note:
Note: so corrected endurance limit has to be calculated based on the above given factors
Fatigue stress concentration factor(kf ):
practically Kt value is different from actual value, so a new factor is introduced which is called fatigue
stress concentration factor.
It is defined as the ratio of endurance limit of the notch free specimen to the endurance limit of the
notched specimen.
Kf is applied to the actual materials, so now the equation is kf = σmax / σ0 or τmax / τ0
Notch sensitivity: it may be defined as the degree to which the theoretical effect of stress
concentration is actually reached.
Notch sensitivity factor(q):
it is defined as increase of actual stress over nominal stress to the increase of theoretical stress over
nominal stress
actual stress = kf *σ0 and theoretical stress = kt *σ0
therefore ,
q = (kf *σ0 - σ0 )/(kt *σ0 - σ0 )
q= (kf - 1 )/(kt - 1 )
Note 1:
Case 1: when the material has no sensitivity to notches,
then q=0
so kf = 1
Case 2: when the material is fully sensitive to notches,
then q=1
so kf = kt
Based on the above information, we can say that q value lies in between 0 and 1
Note 2:
Commonly used empirical relations for endurance limit,
For steel material, σe = 0.5 σut
For cast steel, σe = 0.4 σut
For cast iron, σe = 0.35 σut
for non ferrous metals and alloys, σe = 0.3 σut
Numerical problems on completely reversed stressed
Design of machine elements
under fluctuating and repeated stresses
Soderberg equation
Note: Soderberg equation is used to design ductile materials only
Goodman equation
Note: Goodman equations is used to design brittle material components only
Cumulative damage in fatigue - Miners equation
