VELAMMAL VIDHYASHRAM

SURAPET

PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

ON

Srudy of radioactivity

NAME : Rahul.r
CLASS : 12b2
ROLL NUMBER :

SSCE -2025 -2026

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that, Rahul.R of class XII B2has successfully
completed the project on the topic “STUDY OF RADIOACTIVITY”
under the guidance of Ms . Rajamani Devi in partial fulfillment of
physics practical examination conducted by SSCE, CBSE, New Delhi
for the academic year 2025 – 2026.

Signature of teacher in charge Signature of Internal Examiner

Signature of Principal Signature of External Examiner

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the accomplishment of this project successfully, many people have
bestowed upon me their blessings and the heart pledged support. So I am
utilizing this opportunity to thank all the people who have been
concerned with my project.

Primarily I would like to thank God Almighty for giving me the

strength, knowledge and good health to complete this project
successfully.

Then I would like to thank the Principal of Velammal Vidhyashram for

the continuous support and our Physics teacher whose whole hearted
guidance helped me to complete the project. The suggestions and
instructions given by them served as the major contribution in the
completion of this project.

Then I would like to thank my parents and friends who have given me
their valuable suggestions and guidance, that have been instrumental in
the completion of this project.

Signature of the Student

 TABLE OF CONTENT

S NO. TOPICS PAGE NO.

1 Introduction 5

2 Aim 7

3 Materials required 7

4 Theory 8

5 Procedure 9

6 Observation 9

7 Precautions 11
 8 Sources of error 11

9 Conclusion 11

10 Bibliography 11

INTRODUCTION

Nuclear binding energy

Nuclear binding energy sustains a nucleus’s everlasting vitality. It stands for the energy needed
to break down a nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons, or, conversely, the energy
released during the formation of a nucleus from free nucleons.

Nuclei with larger binding energies are more stable, whereas those with smaller values are less
stable and more likely to undergo nuclear processes or radioactive decay;

 Light Nuclei

Because of increased attractive nuclear attractions, the binding energy per nucleon in light nuclei
rises with mass when more nucleons are added, this pattern does not last forever.

 Intermediate Nuclei

The binding energy per nucleon peaks for intermediate nuclei. This stability peak can be seen in
nuclei such as 56Fe and 62Ni.

 Heavy Nuclei

The binding energy per nucleon diminishes as the repellent effect among protons in dense nuclei
increases. As a result, heavier nuclei such as uranium are prone to fission.
Nuclear binding energy and mass defect are two examples of such phenomena that are crucial to
grasping the stability of matter. These explain how enormous amounts of energy are produced in
nuclear reactions and are also causes of radioactivity.

Radioactivity

A.H.Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896 by accident, while studying the fluorescence and
phosphorescence of compounds irradiated with visible light.

Illuminating uranium-potassium sulphate with visible light, wrapped in black paper and
seperated from photogenic plate by silver, after developing the image ,it showed blackening
which must be due to certain emitted particles which penetrated both the paper and silver.

Radioactivity is a property that some chemical substances or elements possess due to the
instability of their atomic nuclei. These elements are called radioisotopes and they spontaneously
emit subatomic particle or radiation in a process known as radioactive decay.
Types of radioactivity: Alpha, Beta and Gamma

Alpha (α) radiation

Alpha particles consist of helium nuclei, composed of two protons and two neutrons.

These particles are relatively large and heavy compared to other forms of radiation, making them
poorly penetrating. In fact, a simple sheet of paper or even human epidermis can effectively stop
alpha particles.

However, if inhaled or ingested, they can be dangerous as they can damage cells in direct contact
with internal tissues.

Beta (β) radiation

Beta radiation involves high-energy particles: electrons (β-) or positrons (β+). These particles are
smaller and lighter than alpha particles, and have a greater penetration capacity.

Beta particles can pass through skin and tissues, but are blocked by materials such as glass or
plastic. Beta radiation can also be dangerous if radioactive material is swallowed or inhaled.

Gamma radiation (γ)

Gamma radiation comes in the form of highly energetic electromagnetic rays, similar to X-rays,
but with higher energy.
Gamma rays are highly penetrating and can pass through dense materials such as lead or
concrete. Due to its high energy and penetrating ability, gamma radiation is especially dangerous
to humans and requires appropriate protective measures in exposure environments.

AIM

To detect and study about different types of radiations.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

 Any radiation emitting chemical substance .

 A Geiger-Muller counter (gm counter).
 A watch glass.
 A pair of gloves .
 Safety goggles, and;
 Other necessary safety items as deemed necessary.

THEORY

Geiger and Muller developed a ‘Particle detector’ for measuring ‘ionizing radiation’ in 1928.
They named it as ‘Geiger Muller Counter’. Ever since then it has been one of the most widely
used nuclear detectors in the developmental days of Nuclear physics. Geiger counter is also
called as Geiger tube.

 It consists of a hollow metal case enclosed in a thin glass tube. This hollow metal case
acts as a cathode.
 A fine tungsten wire is stretched along the axis of the tube and is insulated by ebonite
plugs. This fine tungsten wire acts as anode.
  The fine tungsten wire is connected to positive terminal of a high tension battery through
a resistance R and the negative terminal is connected to the metal tube.
 The direct current voltage is kept slightly less than that which will cause a discharge
between the electrodes.
 At one end of the tube a thin window of mica is arranged to allow the entry of radiation
into the tube.

This instrument is actually used for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation like alpha
particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. A Geiger-Müller counter can count individual particles
at rates up to about 10,000 per second and is used widely in medicine and in prospecting for
radioactive ores.

The tube is filled with Argon gas, and around voltage of +400 Volts is applied to the thin wire in
the middle. When a particle arrives into the tube, it takes an electron from Argon atom. The
electron is attracted to the central wire and as it rushes towards the wire, the electron will knock
other electrons from Argon atoms, causing an "avalanche". Thus one single incoming particle
will cause many electrons to arrive at the wire, creating a pulse which can be amplified and
counted. This gives us a very sensitive detector.

For alpha and beta particles to be detected by Geiger counters, they must be given a thin
window. It must be thin enough for the alpha and beta particles to penetrate.

Gamma rays have very little trouble penetrating the metal walls of the chamber. Therefore,
Geiger counters may be used to detect gamma radiation and x-rays collectively known as
photons.
PROCEDURE

1. Wear all the safety equipments and proceed to upcoming steps .

2. Place the watch glass on any stable surface .
3. Gently place the radiation emitting chemical substance on it .
4. Slowly bring the Geiger Muller counter close to the watch glass and observe the
changes in the counting .

OBSERVATION

 The measurement provided by a Geiger counter is usually given in counts per minute
(CPM) or counts per second (CPS).
 When the Geiger counter detects ionizing radiation, such as alpha, beta, or gamma
particles, it produces audible clicks or beeps and displays the number of counts on a
digital or analog screen. Each click or beep represents the detection of a single particle of
ionizing radiation.
 The number of counts per minute (or per second) recorded by the Geiger counter depends
on the intensity of the radiation present in the area being measured. Higher radiation
levels result in more counts per unit of time, while lower levels yield fewer counts.
 There is a threshold below which the tube doesn’t work. This can be several hundred
volts. After this, the number of pulses is proportional to the voltage. This region is known
as proportional region

 If the applied voltage is increased further, then a point will be reached after which the
count rate remains constant over a certain region. This region is known as plateau region
or Geiger region. This region is used for Geiger Muller operation
 Beyond the plateau region the applied electric field is so high that a continuous discharge
takes place in the tube and the count rate increases very rapidly. It does not require any
ionization event to happen so that the tube must not be used in this region.
  There is a dead time seen because of the large avalanche induced by any ionization, a
Geiger counter takes a long time (about 1 ms) to recover between successive pulses.
Therefore, Geiger counters cannot measure high radiation rates due to the “dead time” of
the tube. The dead time is the time after each event during which the counter cannot
record another event.

PRECAUTIONS

 Perform under supervision of a teacher .

 Handle the radioactive source with care .
 Make sure to wear proper safety equipments.
 The operating voltage must correspond to the midpoint of flat plateau region of plateau
graph.
 If the continuous discharge is produced, the voltage should be lowered.
  The applied voltage must be relatively stabilized.
 Introduction of light should be prevented to avoid photo electric effect

SOURCES OF ERROR

Geiger-Muller counter does not detect the following,

 Microwave radiation
 Radon gas
 Laser energy
 Neutrons and other uncharged particles cannot be detected.

Due to their long paralysis time restrictions and high dead-time, GM

countermeasures are less efficient.

CONCLUSION

Hence , we have concluded the radiation of different types (alpha ,beta and gamma) and detected
the radiation emitted by the radiation source using a Geiger-muller counter (GM counter).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 NCERT textbook.
 www.wikipedia.com
 https://testbook.com
 www.niser.ac.in