CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
An interconnected power system is a complex Systems
that may be:
• Generation Subsystem
• Transmission and Sub transmission Subsystem
• Distribution Subsystem
• Utilization Subsystem
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Power system may be subdivided into the following major
subsystems:
1. Generation Subsystem
This includes generators and transformers.
Generators - An essential component of power systems is
the three phase ac generator known as synchronous
generator or alternator.
Synchronous generators have two synchronously rotating
fields: One field is produced by the rotor driven at
synchronous speed and excited by dc current.
The other field is produced in the stator windings by the
three-phase armature currents. The dc current for the rotor
windings is provided by excitation systems. In the older
units, the exciters are dc generators mounted on the same
shaft, providing excitation through slip rings.
Current systems use ac generators with rotating rectifiers,
known as brushless excitation systems. The excitation
system maintains generator voltage and controls the
reactive power flow. Because they lack the commutator,
ac generators can generate high power at high voltage,
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typically 30 kV. The source of the mechanical power,
commonly known as the prime mover, may be hydraulic
turbines, steam turbines whose energy comes from the
burning of coal, gas and nuclear fuel, gas turbines, or
occasionally internal combustion engines burning oil.
Steam turbines operate at relatively high speeds of 3600
or 1800 rpm.
The generators to which they are coupled are cylindrical
rotor, two-pole for 3600 rpm, or four-pole for 1800 rpm
operation. Hydraulic turbines, particularly those operating
with a low pressure, operate at low speed. Their
generators are usually a salient type rotor with many
poles. In a power station, several generators are operated
in parallel in the power grid to provide the total power
needed. They are connected at a common point called a
bus. With concerns for the environment and conservation
of fossil fuels, many alternate sources are considered for
employing the untapped energy sources of the sun and the
earth for generation of power.
Some alternate sources used are solar power, geothermal
power, wind power, tidal power, and biomass.
Transformers - The transformer transfers power with
very high efficiency from one level of voltage to another.
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The power transferred to the secondary is almost the same
as the primary, except for losses in the transformer.
Using a step-up transformer will reduce losses in the line,
which makes the transmission of power over long
distances possible. Insulation requirements and other
practical design problems limit the generated voltage to
low values, usually 30 kV.
Thus, step-up transformers are used for transmission of
power. At the receiving end of the transmission lines step-
down transformers are used to reduce the voltage to
suitable values for distribution or utilization. The
electricity in an electric power system may undergo four
or five transformations between generator and consumers.
2. Transmission and Sub transmission Subsystem
An overhead transmission network transfers electric
power from generating units to the distribution system
which ultimately supplies the load.
Transmission lines also interconnect neighboring utilities
which allow the economic dispatch of power within
regions during normal conditions, and the transfer of
power between regions during emergencies.
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Standard transmission voltages are established in the
United States by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI). Transmission voltage lines operating at
more than 60 kV are standardized at 69 kV, 115 kV, 138
kV, 161 kV, 230 kV, 345 kV, 500 kV, and 765 kV line-
to-lines.
Transmission voltages above 230 kV are usually referred
to as extra-high voltage (EHV). High voltage transmission
lines are terminated in substations, which are called high-
voltage substations, receiving substations, or primary
substations.
The function of some substations is switching circuits in
and out of service; they are referred to as switching
stations. At the primary substations, the voltage is stepped
down to a value more suitable for the next part of the flow
toward the load.
Very large industrial customers may be served directly
from the transmission system. The portion of the
transmission system that connects the high-voltage
substations through step-down transformers to the
distribution substations is called the sub transmission
network. There is no clear distinction between
transmission and sub transmission voltage levels.
Typically, the sub transmission voltage level ranges from
69 to 138 kV. Some large industrial customers may be
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served from the sub transmission system. Capacitor banks
and reactor banks are usually installed in the substations
for maintaining the transmission line voltage.
3. Distribution Subsystem
The distribution system connects the distribution
substations to the consumers’ service-entrance equipment.
The primary distribution lines range from 4 to 34.5 kV
and supply the load in a well-defined geographical area.
Some small industrial customers are served directly by the
primary feeders.
The secondary distribution network reduces the voltage
for utilization by commercial and residential consumers.
Lines and cables not exceeding a few hundred feet in
length then deliver power to the individual consumers.
The secondary distribution serves most of the customers
at levels of 240/120 V, single-phase, three-wire;
208Yl120 V, three-phase, four-wire; or 480Y/277 V,
three-phase, four-wire. The power for a typical home is
derived from a transformer that reduces the primary
feeder voltage to 240/120 V using a three wire line.
Distribution systems utilize both overhead and
underground conductors. The growth of underground
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distribution has been extremely rapid and as much as 70
percent of new residential construction in North America
is via underground systems.
Transmission-line parameters and calculations
are studied in Chapters 2 through 3.
Network models based on the admittance and
impedance representations are developed in
Chapter 4.
The symmetrical components and
unsymmetrical faults are presented in Chapters
5 through 7.
Chapter 8 presents Overhead line conductor and
technical specification.
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