HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
HO CHI MINH CITY NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
EARTH SCIENCE REPORT: GEOLOGIC TIME
Course Code: CH1004
Instructor: Mr. Luong Bao Binh
Class: CC01 - HK242
Group: 7
Student Name Student ID
Vũ Ngọc Khôi Minh 2452776
Nguyễn Duy Nam 2452785
Nguyễn Cao Cường 2452173
Trần Tiến Minh Hiếu 2452336
Nguyễn Hữu Nghị 2452828
Nguyễn Hùng Việt Bảo 2452130
Ho Chi Minh City, 2025
CONTENTS
I. Introduction and Historical Background 4
1. Introduction 4
2. Historical Background 4
3. Early Observations and Theological Interpretations 4
4. The Emergence of Modern Geology (18th - 19th Centuries) 5
5. Advancements in Geochronology (Late 19th - 20th Centuries) 5
6. Modern Refinements and Applications 6
II/ RELATIVE DATING 7
1. Rules for Determining the Order of Rock Beds 7
2. Law of Superposition 7
3. Principle of Original Horizontality 7
4. Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships 8
5. Unconformities 8
5.1 Angular Unconformity 8
5.2 Disconformity 9
5.3 Nonconformity 9
III/ Correlation of Rock Layers 10
1) Matching rock layers from different regions 10
2) The role of fossils in correlation 11
Key Fossil-Based Correlation Techniques: 11
1. Index Fossils (Key Fossils for Dating Rocks) 11
2. Fossil Assemblages (Using Groups of Fossils for Correlation) 11
3. Microfossils (Tiny Fossils for Large-Scale Correlation) 12
Real-World Applications of Correlating Rock Layers 12
IV/ Fossils and Evidence of Past Life 13
1) Types of Fossils 13
A. Petrified Fossils (Mineral Replacement Fossils) 13
B. Molds and Casts 13
C. Carbonization & Impressions 13
D. Preservation in Amber 13
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E. Indirect Evidence (Trace Fossils) 14
2) Conditions Favoring Fossil Preservation 14
● Rapid Burial: Organisms buried quickly by sediments are protected from
scavengers and decay. 15
● Low Oxygen Conditions: Reduces decomposition, often in deep lakes,
swamps, or ocean floors. 15
● Presence of Hard Parts: Bones, teeth, shells, and exoskeletons fossilize
more easily than soft tissues. 15
● Mineral-Rich Environments: High mineral content in groundwater
enhances permineralization. 15
● Stable Geological Conditions: Areas with little disturbance from erosion,
earthquakes, or volcanic activity are more likely to preserve fossils. 15
3) Principle of Fossil Succession 15
● Determine Relative Ages: Older fossils are found in deeper rock layers,
while younger fossils are in upper layers. 15
● Correlate Rock Layers Worldwide: Similar fossils found in different
locations indicate rocks of the same age. 15
● Study Evolution: Fossils provide evidence of how species have changed
over millions of years. 15
● Identify Extinction Events: The sudden disappearance of fossil species
marks mass extinction events, such as the K-Pg boundary (end of the
dinosaurs). 15
V. RADIOACTIVITY, RADIOMETRIC DATING 16
1. Atomic structure reviewed 16
Protons (p⁺) – Positively charged particles found in the nucleus. 16
❖ Neutrons (n⁰) – Neutral particles also found in the nucleus. 16
❖ Electrons (e⁻) – Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus in energy
levels. 16
Key Components of Atomic Structure: 16
❖ Nucleus: The dense center of an atom, containing protons and neutrons. 16
❖ Electron Shells (Energy Levels): Surround the nucleus and contain electrons.
16
❖ Atomic Number (Z): Equals the number of protons and determines the
element. 16
❖ Mass Number (A): Sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. 16
❖ Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. 16
2. Radioactivity 16
● Parent Atom: The original unstable atom that undergoes radioactive decay. 17
● Daughter Atom: The resulting atom after decay, which may still be radioactive
or stable. 17
Common types of radioactive decay include: 17
2
● Alpha Decay – The parent atom emits an alpha particle (2 protons, 2
neutrons), forming a daughter atom with a lower atomic number. 17
● Beta Decay – A neutron in the parent atom converts into a proton or vice
versa, emitting a beta particle (electron or positron). 17
● Gamma Decay – The nucleus releases excess energy in the form of gamma
radiation without changing the number of protons or neutrons. 17
3. Radiometric dating 17
Key Principles: 18
❖ Radioactive Decay – Unstable parent isotopes decay into stable daughter
isotopes at a predictable rate. 18
❖ Half-Life – The time required for half of the parent isotopes in a sample to
decay. Different isotopes have different half-lives, ranging from seconds to
billions of years. 18
❖ Parent-Daughter Ratio – Scientists measure the ratio of parent to daughter
atoms in a sample to calculate its age. 18
Pros and Cons of Radiometric Dating 18
Pros: 18
Cons: 18
VI. THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE 20
1. Introduction 20
2. Subdivisions of Geologic Time 20
a. Eon
Eons represent the largest divisions of geologic time and encompass vast periods
of Earth's history. There are four recognized eons: 20
b. Era 21
c. Periods and Epochs 21
3. The Importance of the Geologic Time Scale 22
4. Challenges in Dating the Geologic Time Scale 22
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FOREWORD
We extend our sincere gratitude to Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology for
incorporating the Earth Science course into the curriculum. This initiative has
significantly broadened our scientific perspective and understanding.
We are particularly indebted to our esteemed lecturer, Mr. Luong Bao Binh, for his
unwavering dedication and insightful instruction throughout this course. His
commitment to academic excellence has profoundly enriched our learning
experience.
Engaging in this course has fostered critical thinking and a more rigorous approach
to our studies. The knowledge and skills acquired are invaluable assets that will
undoubtedly serve us in our future endeavors.
The process of compiling this report has been both enlightening and rewarding,
offering us the opportunity to delve deeper into the subject matter. Despite our
earnest efforts, we acknowledge that there may be areas for improvement. We
earnestly welcome constructive feedback to enhance the quality of our work.
Thank you.
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I/ Introduction and Historical Background
1. Introduction
Understanding geologic time is fundamental to the Earth sciences, as it provides a
chronological framework for studying the planet's formation, the evolution of life,
climatic shifts, and major geological events such as mountain-building and mass
extinctions. The geologic time scale serves as a standardized timeline that correlates
geological strata with time, allowing scientists to reconstruct past environments and
life forms. This framework is essential for disciplines like stratigraphy,
paleontology, geochronology, and plate tectonics, facilitating a comprehensive
understanding of Earth's dynamic history.
2. Historical Background
The development of the geologic time scale and the concept of deep time have
evolved over centuries through significant scientific advancements:
3. Early Observations and Theological Interpretations
● Ancient Philosophers: Greek philosophers such as Xenophanes and Aristotle
observed marine fossils inland and speculated about past geological changes,
hinting at a dynamic Earth.
● Theological Chronologies: During the Middle Ages, Earth's history was often
interpreted through religious texts. For instance, James Ussher, a 17th-century
Archbishop, calculated Earth's creation at 4004 BCE based on biblical
genealogies, suggesting a young Earth approximately 6,000 years old.
4. The Emergence of Modern Geology (18th - 19th Centuries)
● James Hutton (1726–1797): Known as the "Father of Modern Geology," Hutton
introduced the principle of uniformitarianism, asserting that current geological
processes operated similarly in the past. His work, Theory of the Earth (1795),
proposed that Earth's features resulted from continuous processes over immense
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periods, challenging the notion of a young Earth.
● William Smith (1769–1839): An English surveyor, Smith developed the concept of
biostratigraphy, using fossil assemblages to correlate and date sedimentary rock
layers. His creation of the first geological map of England was pivotal in
understanding the spatial distribution of strata.
● Charles Lyell (1797–1875): Lyell's seminal work, Principles of Geology
(1830-1833), expanded upon Hutton's ideas, promoting uniformitarianism and
influencing contemporary scientific thought, including Charles Darwin's evolutionary
theories.
5. Advancements in Geochronology (Late 19th - 20th Centuries)
● Discovery of Radioactivity: The identification of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in
1896 and subsequent research by Marie and Pierre Curie laid the foundation for
radiometric dating techniques.
● Arthur Holmes (1890–1965): Holmes pioneered the use of radiometric dating,
particularly uranium-lead methods, to determine the ages of rocks. His work
provided quantitative estimates of Earth's age, supporting the concept of deep time.
● Development of the Geologic Time Scale: Throughout the 20th century, the
integration of relative dating methods (like stratigraphy and fossil correlation) with
absolute dating (radiometric techniques) led to the refinement of the geologic time
scale. This collaborative effort established standardized divisions and chronological
boundaries recognized internationally.
6. Modern Refinements and Applications
● Isotopic Dating Techniques: Advancements in mass spectrometry have improved
the precision of isotopic dating, allowing for more accurate age determinations of
geological materials.
● Magnetostratigraphy and Astrochronology: The study of Earth's magnetic field
reversals (magnetostratigraphy) and the application of astronomical cycles
(astrochronology) have further refined the temporal resolution of the geologic time
scale.
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● Interdisciplinary Collaborations: Modern geology increasingly integrates data
from biology, chemistry, and physics to reconstruct past climates, track biological
evolution, and understand geochemical cycles, enhancing the comprehensiveness
of geologic time studies.
II/ RELATIVE DATING
1. Rules for Determining the Order of Rock Beds
Relative dating is a procedure of discovering the relative order of rock beds based
on where they are in the geological column. Relative dating does not provide a true
numerical age but establishes if one bed is older or younger than another. It is
crucial in constructing geological histories and the history of Earth.
2. Law of Superposition
● Where there has been no disturbance in a sedimentary rock bed, the higher layers
are newer than the lower ones.
● Before establishing this law, geologists were aware that sediments are deposited in
succession over time as newer layers accumulate on older ones.
● Geologists can determine chronological order of events of geological history by
examining strata of the rocks.
● By rule, the law is useful in fossil dating since fossils from lower levels are older
than those from upper levels.
3. Principle of Original Horizontality
● Sedimentary rocks are initially deposited horizontally through gravity.
● Tilted, folded, or disturbed rock layers show that they have experienced geological
processes such as earthquakes, tectonic forces, or volcanic activity.
● This principle enables one to establish structural changes that have occurred since
the rock was initially deposited, and it gives information about ancient geologic
forces.
4. Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships
● A geologic feature or rock layer that cuts across another is always younger than
the crossed feature.
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● This principle is essential in determining the relative age of faults, igneous
intrusions, and erosional surfaces.
● For example, where a fault line cuts across sedimentary rock layers, the fault must
be more recent than the layers it intersects.
● It is also widely applied in radiometric dating where it is applied together with
absolute dating techniques to give time constraints.
5. Unconformities
An unconformity is a disruption in the rock record due to erosion or a period of
non-deposition. The disruptions indicate lost time in the record of strata and
document evidence of ancient Earth changes.
5.1 Angular Unconformity
● Occurs when older rock layers are folded or bent before new rock layers are
deposited upon them.
● Indicates a prior history of deformation, erosion, and subsequent deposition.
● Angular unconformities are likely to indicate earlier mountain-building activity
(orogeny) and tectonic activity that have re-sculpted the landscape.
5.2 Disconformity
● Forms when parallel sedimentary rock layers show an interruption by erosion or
non-deposition.
● The erosion may have removed earlier deposited layers, creating a gap in the
geological record.
● These unconformities cannot easily be found because the layers of rocks are still
parallel, so it is essential to examine fossil material or dating methods in order to
determine the lost time.
5.3 Nonconformity
· Results when sedimentary rocks are formed over igneous or metamorphic rocks.
· Represents an extensive erosion period before sedimentary deposition took
place.
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· The presence of nonconformities suggests extensive changes in the geology,
i.e., uplift and exposure of the deeply rooted rock masses before new sediments
are deposited.
Thus, relative dating helps to determine the sequence and relative ages of rock
layers based on their positions and their relationships. It provides significant
information about the Earth's past climate changes, tectonic activities, and evolution
of living organisms.
III/ Correlation of Rock Layers
The correlation of rock layers involves matching rock formations from different
locations to establish a continuous geologic history. This helps geologists determine
the relative ages of rock layers, reconstruct past environments, and understand
large-scale geologic events such as mountain formation, sea-level changes, and
mass extinctions.
1. Matching rock layers from different regions
Since rock formations can vary across different locations, geologists use multiple
techniques to correlate them. These techniques help establish connections between
rock layers that might be physically separated by vast distances.
a) Lithostratigraphy (Matching by Rock Type)
● This method correlates rock layers based on their physical characteristics,
such as color, texture, mineral composition, grain size, and sedimentary
structures.
b) Chronostratigraphy (Matching by Absolute Age)
● This method determines the actual age of rock layers using radiometric
dating techniques such as Carbon-14 (for recent deposits) and Uranium-Lead
dating (for older rocks).
c) Magnetostratigraphy (Matching by Magnetic Signature)
● The Earth's magnetic field has reversed many times in history, leaving a
record in volcanic and sedimentary rocks. These magnetic patterns allow
geologists to correlate rock layers across vast regions.
d) Sequence Stratigraphy (Matching by Sea-Level Changes)
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● This method analyzes changes in sediment deposition caused by fluctuations
in sea levels over time. These sea-level changes create widespread,
recognizable patterns in sedimentary layers across different regions.
2) The role of fossils in correlation
Fossils are one of the most powerful tools for correlating rock layers because they
provide biological evidence of Earth's history. The principle of faunal succession
states that fossil organisms appear in a definite, recognizable order in the rock
record, allowing scientists to correlate rock layers even when lithology (rock type)
varies.
Key Fossil-Based Correlation Techniques:
1. Index Fossils (Key Fossils for Dating Rocks)
These are fossils of species that were widespread but only existed for a short
period.If the same index fossil is found in rock layers in different locations, those
layers can be correlated to the same time period.
o Example:
● Trilobites (Paleozoic Era) help correlate rock layers from 500 million years
ago.
● Ammonites (Mesozoic Era) are useful for dating Jurassic and Cretaceous
rocks.
● Foraminifera (Cenozoic Era) are widely used in correlating marine
sedimentary rocks.
2. Fossil Assemblages (Using Groups of Fossils for Correlation)
Sometimes, multiple fossils are used together to improve correlation accuracy. If a
layer contains fossils from several known species, it provides a more precise dating
window.
3. Microfossils (Tiny Fossils for Large-Scale Correlation)
Microscopic fossils like pollen, spores, and planktonic foraminifera are highly
useful because they can be found in different environments, even in areas where
larger fossils are rare.
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Real-World Applications of Correlating Rock Layers
● Dating Extinction Events: The layer of rock containing high iridium levels at
the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary has been found worldwide,
linking it to the asteroid impact that caused the extinction of the dinosaurs.
● Oil and Gas Exploration: Geologists use fossil-based correlation to locate oil
reservoirs by identifying ancient marine environments where organic
material was buried and converted into petroleum.
● Understanding Past Climates: Fossil pollen records help scientists
reconstruct climate changes over millions of years, providing insights into
ice ages and warm periods.
● Tectonic Plate Movements: Similar rock formations and fossils found on
different continents provide evidence for plate tectonics and continental drift,
supporting the idea that continents were once connected.
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IV/ Fossils and Evidence of Past Life
Fossils provide direct and indirect evidence of ancient life, helping scientists
reconstruct past ecosystems, climates, and evolutionary changes. Fossils form under
specific conditions, and their study follows the principle of fossil succession, which
states that fossil organisms appear in a definite and recognizable order over time.
1) Types of Fossils
Fossils can be classified into several types based on how they were preserved over
millions of years.
A. Petrified Fossils (Mineral Replacement Fossils)
● These form when minerals gradually replace the original organic material of
a buried organism.
● The process, called permineralization, preserves fine details of the
organism’s structure.
● Example: Petrified wood from ancient forests and dinosaur bones replaced
by silica or calcite.
B. Molds and Casts
● A mold forms when an organism is buried in sediment and later dissolves,
leaving an empty imprint.
● A cast forms when minerals fill the mold, creating a three-dimensional
replica of the organism.
● Example: Seashell molds and casts in sedimentary rocks.
C. Carbonization & Impressions
● In carbonization, only a thin film of carbon remains after an organism
decays, preserving fine details like soft tissues, leaves, or feathers.
● Impressions are shallow imprints left in soft sediments, which harden over
time.
● Example: Fossilized fern leaves and fish impressions in shale.
D. Preservation in Amber
● Small organisms like insects or plant material get trapped in sticky tree resin,
which hardens into amber over millions of years.
● This method preserves entire organisms, including soft tissues.
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● Example: Prehistoric insects and lizards preserved in amber from the
Cretaceous period.
E. Indirect Evidence (Trace Fossils)
● Trace fossils are evidence of an organism's activity, rather than the organism
itself.
● Examples include:
○ Tracks and footprints: Provide insight into movement and behavior
(e.g., dinosaur tracks).
○ Burrows: Indicate ancient animal habitats (e.g., worm burrows in
sediment).
○ Coprolites (fossilized dung): Reveal ancient diets and digestive
processes.
○ Gastroliths (stomach stones): Found in the digestive system of some
dinosaurs and birds, helping them grind food.
2) Conditions Favoring Fossil Preservation
Not all organisms become fossils; specific conditions increase the chances of
preservation.
● Rapid Burial: Organisms buried quickly by sediments are protected from
scavengers and decay.
● Low Oxygen Conditions: Reduces decomposition, often in deep lakes,
swamps, or ocean floors.
● Presence of Hard Parts: Bones, teeth, shells, and exoskeletons fossilize more
easily than soft tissues.
● Mineral-Rich Environments: High mineral content in groundwater enhances
permineralization.
● Stable Geological Conditions: Areas with little disturbance from erosion,
earthquakes, or volcanic activity are more likely to preserve fossils.
3) Principle of Fossil Succession
The Principle of Fossil Succession, formulated by William Smith in the early 19th
century, states that fossil organisms appear in a specific, predictable order in the
rock record. This allows geologists to:
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● Determine Relative Ages: Older fossils are found in deeper rock layers,
while younger fossils are in upper layers.
● Correlate Rock Layers Worldwide: Similar fossils found in different
locations indicate rocks of the same age.
● Study Evolution: Fossils provide evidence of how species have changed over
millions of years.
● Identify Extinction Events: The sudden disappearance of fossil species marks
mass extinction events, such as the K-Pg boundary (end of the dinosaurs).
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V. RADIOACTIVITY, RADIOMETRIC DATING
1. Atomic structure reviewed
An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element. It
consists of three main subatomic particles:
Protons (p⁺) – Positively charged particles found in the nucleus.
● Neutrons (n⁰) – Neutral particles also found in the nucleus.
● Electrons (e⁻) – Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus in
energy levels.
Key Components of Atomic Structure:
● Nucleus: The dense center of an atom, containing protons and
neutrons.
● Electron Shells (Energy Levels): Surround the nucleus and contain
electrons.
● Atomic Number (Z): Equals the number of protons and determines the
element.
● Mass Number (A): Sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
● Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of
neutrons.
2. Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the process by which unstable atomic nuclei lose energy by
emitting radiation. This occurs in radioactive decay, where an unstable parent atom
transforms into a more stable daughter atom by emitting alpha particles, beta
particles, or gamma rays.
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● Parent Atom: The original unstable atom that undergoes radioactive decay.
● Daughter Atom: The resulting atom after decay, which may still be
radioactive or stable.
Common types of radioactive decay include:
● Alpha Decay – The parent atom emits an alpha particle (2 protons, 2
neutrons), forming a daughter atom with a lower atomic number.
● Beta Decay – A neutron in the parent atom converts into a proton or vice
versa, emitting a beta particle (electron or positron).
● Gamma Decay – The nucleus releases excess energy in the form of gamma
radiation without changing the number of protons or neutrons.
3. Radiometric dating
Radiometric dating is a technique used to determine the age of materials, such as
rocks and fossils, by measuring the decay of radioactive isotopes. This method
relies on the known half-lives of radioactive elements and the ratio of parent atoms
(unstable isotopes) to daughter atoms (stable decay products) in a sample.
Key Principles:
● Radioactive Decay – Unstable parent isotopes decay into stable daughter
isotopes at a predictable rate.
● Half-Life – The time required for half of the parent isotopes in a sample to
decay. Different isotopes have different half-lives, ranging from seconds to
billions of years.
● Parent-Daughter Ratio – Scientists measure the ratio of parent to daughter
atoms in a sample to calculate its age.
Pros and Cons of Radiometric Dating
Pros:
➢ Highly Accurate – When properly applied, radiometric dating provides
precise age estimates.
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➢ Long Time Range – Can date materials from a few thousand to billions of
years old, depending on the isotope used.
➢ Widely Applicable – Works for rocks, minerals, fossils, and archaeological
artifacts.
➢ Supports Geological and Evolutionary Studies – Helps establish Earth's
history, fossil ages, and the timing of major events like volcanic eruptions.
Cons:
➢ Requires a Closed System – Any contamination or loss of isotopes can lead
to inaccurate results.
➢ Not Suitable for All Materials – Only certain materials (like igneous rocks
and organic remains) contain suitable isotopes.
➢ Limited by Half-Life – Some isotopes are only useful for dating within
specific time ranges.
➢ Expensive and Time-Consuming – Requires sophisticated lab equipment and
careful sample preparation.
VI. THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
1. Introduction
The “geologic time scale” is a system used by geologists and paleontologists to
describe the timing and relationships of events in Earth's history. It divides geologic
history into units based on significant events, such as mass extinctions and major
geological changes. Originally, the time scale was created using relative dating
methods, but advancements in radiometric dating have allowed for more precise
numerical ages.
2. Subdivisions of Geologic Time
The geologic time scale is divided into several hierarchical units:
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a. Eon
Eons represent the largest divisions of geologic time and encompass vast periods of
Earth's history. There are four recognized eons:
● Hadean Eon (4.5 to 3.8 billion years ago): The oldest eon, marking the
formation of Earth and early crust formation. It was a hostile environment
with extreme volcanic activity and frequent asteroid impacts.
● Archean Eon (3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago): Life first appeared in the form of
simple bacteria. The atmosphere lacked oxygen, and microbial life thrived in
the oceans.
● Proterozoic Eon (2.5 billion to 540 million years ago): The first
oxygen-producing photosynthesis occurred, leading to the Great Oxygenation
Event. Early multicellular life and the first eukaryotic cells evolved during this
time.
● Phanerozoic Eon (540 million years ago to present): The most recent eon,
characterized by an abundance of fossil evidence of complex life. It includes
the rise of plants, animals, and eventually humans.
b. Era
Each eon is further divided into eras. The Phanerozoic Eon consists of three
major eras:
● Paleozoic Era (540 to 248 million years ago): Known as the "ancient life"
era, this period saw the rise of marine invertebrates, fish, amphibians, and
early reptiles.
● Mesozoic Era (248 to 65 million years ago): The "middle life" era, often
called the Age of Dinosaurs. This era ended with a mass extinction event.
● Cenozoic Era (65 million years ago to present): The "recent life" era,
marked by the rise of mammals, birds, and eventually humans.
c. Periods and Epochs
Eras are divided into periods, which are further subdivided into epochs.
Some significant periods and epochs include:
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● Cretaceous Period (Mesozoic Era): Dinosaurs flourished but became extinct
by the end of this period.
● Tertiary Period (Cenozoic Era): Mammals diversified after the extinction of
the dinosaurs.
● Quaternary Period (Cenozoic Era): Includes the Pleistocene and Holocene
epochs, the latter being the current epoch where human civilization has
developed.
3. The Importance of the Geologic Time Scale
The geologic time scale is crucial for understanding Earth’s history, evolutionary
biology, and climate change. By studying rock layers and fossils, scientists can
reconstruct past environments, extinction events, and major biological changes.
4. Challenges in Dating the Geologic Time Scale
Determining precise dates for geologic events poses several challenges:
● Not all rocks are datable: Sedimentary rocks, which often contain fossils, are
difficult to date directly.
● Radiometric dating limitations: While radiometric dating provides numerical
ages, it requires igneous or metamorphic rocks for accuracy.
● Bracketing techniques: Scientists use layers of volcanic ash or igneous
intrusions to estimate the ages of sedimentary rock formations.
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