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10. Portal frame design

10.1. Introduction
The most common form of structural arrangement for single-storey build-
ings is that of portal frame construction. The modern portal frame is
basically a rigidly-jointed plane frame made from hot-rolled sections,
supporting the roofing and side cladding via cold-formed purlins, and
sheeting rails. A typical, two bay, industrial building is shown in Fig. 10.1.
Nowadays, typical spans of portal frames are in the region of 30 m to 40 m,
though spans can vary from 15 m to 80 m. The common spacing between
frames is about 6 m, but can vary from about 4.5 m to 10.0 m, depending to
some extent on the span of the frames. The height to the lowest part of the
roof member in a normal industrial building is usually of the order of 4.5 m

Translucent
lights Ventilators Main frame
Gutters Side rails
Insulation
Cladding Purlins
Doors

Foundations

Fig. 10.1.

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210 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

to 6.0 m. Such frames are economical when covering large clear floor areas,
thus offering maximum adaptability of the space inside the building.
The setting out of portal frames as envisaged by BS 5950 may be seen in
Figs. 17 and 18 in the code, but see the comment on Lb in the section on
stability.

10.2. Behaviour of a portal frame at failure

The behaviour of a portal frame at failure must be considered first before
undertaking the design of the frame in detail. The case of a frame subjected
to uniform dead and imposed loads is considered here (see Fig. 10.2). The
total load is assumed to be steadily increasing until ultimate failure of the
structure occurs.

UDL (DL + IL
(

C Ridge D
Rafter
Eaves Rise

A Haunch
B
Height
Leg to eaves

Span

Fig. 10.2.

The first part of the loading will be within the elastic limits of the steel and
the behaviour of the frame will be very nearly linear; the deflection will be
very close to being proportional to the applied load. It will also be found that
if the load is removed then the structure will return to its original shape.
During this part of the loading, the forces in the frame may be calculated
using elastic methods, either by hand or, for complicated frames, by a
computer. At any point on the frame the value of M/Mp may be calculated,
where M is the applied moment and Mp the plastic moment capacity of the
section.
The first plastic hinge in the structure will occur at the first point in the
frame where the M/Mp ratio reaches 1.0. Once this point has been estab-
lished, it becomes necessary to determine the next point to become a plastic
hinge. This is done by re-analysing the frame with the moment fixed at the
plastic hinge position, its value being the plastic moment capacity of the
member’s section. Again, there will be another point where the value of
M/Mp will reach 1.0. This will then become the second hinge position.

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Portal frame design 211

Further hinge positions will be found until the frame becomes a mechanism
at the ultimate load-carrying capacity of the frame.
For standard portal frames, the positions of the plastic hinges can be
determined in advance. In simple design cases, it is recommended that the
hinges should be at the bottom of the haunch and in the rafter near the ridge.
This is shown in Fig. 10.2 where the hinges are assumed to be at points A, B,
C and D. It is important that the engineer also checks the effects of wind
loading on the structure, because there could be a possible change in the
position of hinge locations, and stress reversal.
It will be noticed that there are many ridge portal frames built which are
symmetrical and have uniform loading. The apparent number of hinges
which seem to be needed exceed the number which would normally be
expected in conventional elastic analysis, and yet there is no premature
failure. This may be explained by considering the frame in Fig. 10.2. If the
first hinges notionally form in the legs at points A and B, then it would
appear that the frame has failed, but due to the normal imperfections present
in the structure, the frame will sway. When this happens, the moment in one
of the hinges will be reduced and it will lock, thus forming a solid member.
It will then be necessary to continue loading until another hinge forms in the
frame before failure occurs.
Once the collapse mode has been fully determined and the plastic hinge
positions found, a check should be made to ensure that the lowest failure
load has been obtained. The easiest way to do this is to draw a moment
diagram of the frame, in order to ensure that premature failure will not
occur; the value of M/Mp should be checked at all points on the frame. In
most practical cases of portal frames this can be carried out by inspection. If
the lowest bound solution has been found, then the moments will be equal to
the plastic moment capacities at plastic hinges and less at all other points on
the frame. If the plastic moment capacity has been exceeded at any other
point on the frame, then the lowest bound solution has not been found and a
revised set of plastic hinge positions will need to be considered.

10.3. Moment diagrams

The construction of the moment diagrams mentioned in the previous
section can be undertaken in the following stages:
• Draw the free moment diagram assuming that there are sufficient
releases to produce a statically determinate structure.
• Draw reactant diagrams from the unknown forces, which may well
have to be determined.
• Draw the final combined diagram for the structure, using the free
moment diagram and the reactant diagram.

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212 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

Taking each of these in turn for a simple portal frame gives the following steps:
(a) The diagram for the vertical forces only is drawn, assuming that one
of the feet of the frame is on rollers and the frame is therefore free to
spread. It is usual to plot the diagram on a developed single line frame
drawing (see Fig. 10.3). The numeric values for the various points in
the diagram are obtained from the equation for a free moment curve.
At any point x, the value is wxL 2 - wx 2 2 , with a maximum value
at the centre of the span of wL 2 8. Note that the moments in the legs
for this case are zero.
w distributed load

Support
free to
move
Pin base
x
L

Eaves Ridge Eaves

C
L

Free moment (a parabola for UDL)

Fig. 10.3.

(b) When erected, the frame is constrained against spreading at the feet
by the foundations. Therefore there is an additional horizontal force
(H) applied to the frame. This force generates another moment
diagram shown in Fig. 10.4. Taking the horizontal force and multi-
plying it by the height above the base gives the moment at any point
in the frame, in this case.

Reactant moment

Fig. 10.4.

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Portal frame design 213

(c) The two diagrams may then be combined to give the final moment
diagram on the frame (see Fig. 10.5). The moment due to the hori-
zontal reaction at the feet will reduce the free moment in the rafter.
Plastic hinges will form at the points where the solid vertical lines are
shown, i.e. at the bottom of the haunch in the legs and at the top of the
rafter near the ridge.

Plastic hinges
Combined moments
Fig. 10.5.

If all the procedures have been followed correctly, it will be found that the
moment will be equal to Mp where the maximum moments occur and less at
all other points.
Note: The same result may be obtained by using virtual work equations.
There are, in fact, several different manual methods for analysing portal
frames, i.e. graphical, semi-graphical, mechanism method and plastic
moment distribution. There are also a number of commercially-available
computer design packages.

10.4. Frame equilibrium

The use of plastic design will not invalidate the normal requirements of
equilibrium, which means that all the internal forces and moments must
balance the external applied loads. Because the strength of the section is
fully utilised at the plastic hinges in resisting the applied moments, the
internal moments are already known at these points. Because of this, it is
frequently possible to construct the reactant and final moment diagrams for
simple frames without recourse to the analytical techniques normally used for
indeterminate structures. This procedure may be illustrated by considering
the equilibrium at the hinge locations in the typical portal frame already
considered.
Consider the hinge in the leg (Fig. 10.6). The moment at the bottom of
the haunch will be the plastic moment capacity of the section. This will
cause a horizontal force at the foot of the frame equal to the moment divided
by the height to the hinge position (h1).

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214 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

M p of leg
h1

Fig. 10.6.

x
y

V = wL/2

Fig. 10.7.

Consider the hinge in the rafter near the ridge (Fig. 10.7). As with the leg
hinge, the moment will be equal to the plastic moment of the section which
must be balanced by the external applied forces, including the reactions at
the foot of the frame. In this case the following equation can be used:
w × L/2 – Hy – wx2/2 = Mp rafter
The use of this equation provides a ready means of calculating both the
moments in the frame and the minimum plastic moments required for each
section. It should be noted that the point of maximum moment in the rafter
is not at the ridge, unless the rafter is horizontal. The exact location depends
on the geometry of the frame, see Graph 10.4.

10.5. Frame stability

During loading, all structures move a certain amount. At times this move-
ment will cause the structure to lose some of its strength. When this
happens, an allowance must be made for the effect in the design procedure.
For portal frames, designed to BS 5950, this is carried out by checking if the
frame is sensitive to sway. The check is detailed in §5.5.4.2, which gives
two methods of checking sway stability. The first is to apply a lateral load to
the frame equal to 0.5 per cent of the factored vertical dead and imposed
loads and calculate the resulting elastic deflection which must not exceed
the height of the columns divided by 1 000. The second method is to use a
stability formula which is given as:

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Portal frame design 215

Lb æ r ö æ 275 ö
£ 44 L çç ÷ç ÷
D W h è 4 + rLr L ÷ø çè pyr ÷
ø
where:
æ 2I ö L
r = çç c ÷÷ æç ö÷ for a single bay frame
è Ir ø è h ø
æI ö L
r = çç c ÷÷ æç ö÷ for a multi-bay frame
è Ir ø è h ø
L is the span of the bay
Lb is the effective span of the bay
æ 2 Dh ö
L b = L - çç ÷÷ Lh
è D s + Dh ø
where:
Dh is the additional depth of the haunch
Ds is the depth of the rafter, allowing for its slope
Lh is the length of a haunch
(See Fig. 17 of BS 5950 and Fig. 10.8(a))
D is the minimum cross-section depth of the rafters
h is the mean column height
Ic is the minimum second moment of area of the column for bending in
the plane of the frame (taken as zero if the column is not rigidly
connected to the rafter)
Ir is the minimum second moment of area of the rafters for bending in
the plane of the frame
pyr is the design strength of the rafters
Lr is the total developed length of the rafter in the bay
W is the arching ratio, Wr/Wo
Wo is the value of Wr for plastic failure of the rafters as a fixed-ended
beam of span L
Wr is the total factored vertical load on the rafters of the bay
If either the sway check or the equation are satisfied then the frame may be
assumed to be stable for gravity loads but the critical load factor, lr, must be
derived for load cases including horizontal forces.
lsc
lr =
lsc - 1

where:

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216 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

h
lsc =
200di
di is the deflection due to the notional horizontal load
hi is the height of the column
If the deflection is not calculated then the value of lsc may be obtained from
the following equation, providing there are no significant point or gantry
loads:
220DL æ r ö æ 275 ö
lsc = ç ÷ç ÷
W hL b ç 4 + rL L ÷ ç pyr ÷
è r øè ø
It is recommended that this check, and any subsequent changes on the
chosen frame, be made before any other calculations are performed.
In addition to the general stability of the frame as a whole, the stability of
each member must also be considered as follows:
• Stability at plastic hinges. This has already been mentioned in
Chapter 5 of this book.
• The distance to the first restraint away from the hinge position. The
equation given in Chapter 5 may be used, but when there is adequate
restraint on the tension flange the formulae in §5.3.4 and Annex G
may be invoked. These give much greater distances to the next
restraint and therefore economy in design.
• The remainder of the frame, where the rules given for unrestrained
members can be used to ensure that the frame is stable.
• Local buckling, which should be considered when selecting a
section. A more detailed discussion has already been given in Section
5.6 of this book. For areas where plastic hinges occur, the section
must be a class 1 type of section, i.e. one suitable for plastic design.
This may influence the choice of section, particularly when using
steels with a higher yield stress than S 275 steels.

10.6. Member proportions and haunch length

The determination of member sizes is a matter of judgement and experi-
ence, although some help has been provided to the engineer by various
authors (see bibliography). In addition to the help given in these references,
most engineers develop their own methods of determining section sizes. It
should be recognised that the material available in a stock yard may well be
a determining factor in the sections chosen!
For the purposes of this book, it will be assumed that the sections will be
selected using graphs similar to those later in this chapter. These graphs are
intended for preliminary assessment of the member sizes and are based on
the following assumptions:

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Portal frame design 217

• There is a plastic hinge in the leg at the top of the haunch.

• There is a second hinge in the rafter at a point determined from the
frame geometry.
• The haunch is 10 per cent of the span in length.
• The loading on the rafter is uniform.
• The depth of the rafter is 1/50 of the span.
The four graphs give:
10.1 The horizontal force at the foot of the frame.
10.2 The moment in the rafter.
10.3 The moment in the leg.
10.4 The distance from the centre of a column to the point of maximum
moment in the adjacent rafter.
It must be noted that these graphs are intended for preliminary member
sizing and that a full check is required on the members once the initial
dimensions have been determined.
The haunch is provided to ease the design and construction of the
connection and to provide economy by reducing the size of the rafter.
The connection involves making a full strength joint between the rafter
and the leg to develop a plastic moment. In order to obtain a practical
number and layout of bolts, it is necessary to increase the lever arm in the
connection. Also, if a deeper haunch section takes the maximum moment in
the rafter, which occurs at the eaves, then a lighter rafter may be used. These
two considerations lead to the provision of a haunch (see Fig. 10.8(a)).

Ds
Dh
Lh

Fig. 10.8 (a)

A common way to form the material for the haunch is to take a length of the
rafter section and make a diagonal cut along the section. The splayed web is
then welded to the underside of the rafter to form the haunch (see Fig. 10.8(b)).

Two haunches splay cut from rafter section

Fig. 10.8 (b)

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218 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

Horizontal force at feet

Span/eaves height
10/1

Rise/span

Graph 10.1.

Rafter moment
Span/eaves height

9/1

10/1
Rise/span

Graph 10.2.

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Portal frame design 219

Leg moment
Leg moment Span/
0.08 Span/eaves height
Eaves height
1/1
1.5/1
0.07
2/1 2.5/1

0.06 3/1
3.5/1
4/1
0.05 4.5/1
5/1
. 5.5/1
6/1 6.5/1
0.04
7/1
7.5/1
8/1
0.03 9/1 8.5/1
9./1

0.02 9.5/1
10/1
10./1
10 0.05
2 0.1
3 0.15
4 0.2
5
Rise/span Rise / Span

Graph 10.3.

Point of maximum moment

Span/eaves height

9/1

10/1

Rise/span

Graph 10.4.

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220 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

There is a practical maximum length for the haunch to ensure that there are
no problems with stability. This is usually taken as ten per cent of the span;
if the haunch is longer then there will be a long compression flange to stabilise
and there will also be a risk of creating plastic lengths instead of hinges
within the haunch. From an economic point of view, too long a haunch will
give a much longer length of weld needed to join the web of the haunch to
the underside of the rafter.

10.7. Apex or ridge connection

The moment at the apex is usually less than the full plastic capacity of the
section and a simple site joint will be sufficient.
For practical reasons and ease of erection and alignment, at least four bolts
are provided (see Fig. 10.9(a)).

Fig. 10.9 (a)

Other typical details of apex connections are shown in Fig. 10.9(b).

Fig. 10.9 (b)

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Portal frame design 221

10.8. Design of a typical portal frame

A typical ridge-type portal frame is shown in Fig. 10.10.

1 .5
6 .0
2 4 .0

Fig. 10.10.

Example 10.8.1. A ridge-type portal frame has a span of 24 m, a height to

eaves of 6 m, and a rise of 1.5 m. The frames, spaced at 6 m centres, are to
support 0.75 kN/m2 imposed and 0.45 kN/m2 dead load, including the self-
weight of the frame. Design the frame in grade S 275 steel, assuming that
the DL + IL case is the design criterion.

SOLUTION
DL = 0.45 kN/m2
IL = 0.75 kN/m2
The frame DL = 0.45 ´ 6 = 2.7 kN/m
The factored DL = 2.7 ´ 1.4 = 3.78 kN/m
Total DL = 3.78 ´ 24 = 90.72 kN
The frame IL = 0.75 ´ 6 = 4.5 kN/m
The factored IL = 4.5 ´ 1.6 = 7.2 kN/m
Total IL = 7.2 ´ 24 = 172.8 kN
Total DL + IL = 263.52 kN
Using graphs, the following parameters are required:
(a) Total load on the frame, as shown above = 263.52 kN
(b) Total load ´ span = 263.52 ´ 24 = 6 324 kNm

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222 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

(c) Span/Eaves height = 24/6 = 4

(d) Rise/span = 1.5/24 = 0.0625
The following values may be read from the graphs:
(a) Horizontal force at the foot of the frame (graph 10.1)
0.288 ´ 263.52 = 76 kN
(b) Plastic moment required in the rafter (graph 10.2)
0.0355 ´ 6 324 = 224.5 kNm
(c) Plastic moment required in the leg (graph 10.3)
0.0643 ´ 6 324 = 406.6 kNm
(d) The point of maximum moment in the rafter (graph 10.4)
0.47 ´ 20 = 9.4 m
It should be noted that if the rise is high compared to the span then the
point of maximum moment can move a significant distance from the
centre of the frame.
The plastic modulus required for each section is the moment derived from
the above calculations divided by the design strength.
In this case, it will be assumed that the design strength will be
275 N/mm2 as the section flanges will almost certainly be less than 16 mm
thick.
Taking each member in turn:
Rafter moment = 224.5 kNm
Sx required = 224.5 ´ 10 3 275 = 817 cm3
Leg moment = 406.6 kNm
Sx required = 406.6 ´ 10 3 275 = 1 479 cm3
The following satisfies these:
Rafters
406 ´ 140 ´ 46 UB, (plastic modulus = 888 cm3)
Legs
457 ´ 152 ´ 74 UB, (plastic modulus 1 627 cm3)

Check on sway stability

These members will be satisfactory if the frame is not free to sway. It must
now be checked to see if it is stable when free. This may be carried out by an
elastic analysis with a nominal load, as already described, or the check may
be made using a formula in the code. It should be noted that certain types
of frame require a more detailed check on stability, using second order
analysis. For this example the code formula will be used.

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Portal frame design 223

The formula has already been given earlier in the text, so the various
factors will now be calculated, starting with the left-hand side (evaluating
Lb D).
In this case:
Lb = 24 – 2.4 = 21.6 m
D = 403.2 mm
Lb D = 21.6 ´ 10 3 403.2 = 53.6, which must be less than the right-
hand side of the equation.
In evaluating the right-hand side of the expression, several terms must be
derived before the whole equation may be evaluated.
Taking each of these in turn:
æ 2I öæ L ö
r = çç c ÷÷ ç ÷
è Ir øè h ø
æ 2 ´ 32 670 ö æ 24 ö
çç ÷÷ ç ÷ = 16.7
è 15 690 ø è 6 ø
W0 = applied load/load capacity as fixed-ended beam
275 ´ 888
Mp = = 244 kNm
10 3
Mp
Load as fixed ended beam = 16 ´
span
= 16 ´ 244 = 162.7 kN
24
Wr 263.52
\W = = = 162
.
Wo 162.7

( )
0. 5
Lr = 2 ´ 12 2 + 15
. 2 = 24.2 m

The right-hand side of the expression can now be evaluated:

44 24
´ ´
(16.7) ´
275
= 871
.
162
. 6 ( 4 + 16.7 ´ 24.2 24) 275

As the right-hand side of the expression is greater than the left, the frame is
stable against the possibility of sway failure. Had this not been the case, the
rafter or leg would have had to be increased to ensure such stability; it is for
this reason that the sway check should be carried out first.

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224 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

Stanchion stability
It is assumed that the leg will be held in place at the plastic hinge position,
as recommended in §5.3.2 for an effective means of providing this
restraint.
This means that both flanges must be held rigidly against lateral move-
ment by some suitable means. These restraints must not only be rigid, but
must also be capable of resisting a force equal to 2.5% of the axial
compression force in the flanges. Any suitable bracing which meets these
requirements may be used.
The leg should then be restrained at a distance down the leg from the
hinge restraint not greater than the value Lm given in the earlier discussion
on plastic design. The procedure is as follows:

a. Average stress in the column =

load
=
( 263.52 ´ 10 2 ) = 13.9
area 94.5
N/mm2, say 14 N/mm2.
b. The value of x, which can be read from the section tables, is 30.1.
c. The value of ry, which can be read from the section tables, is 3.33 cm.
d. The design strength, which in this case is 275 N/mm2
Substituting these values in the equation:
38ry
Lm £
0. 5
æ f 2 ö
ç æ c ö + æç py ö÷ æ x ö
2
÷
ç
çç 130 ÷ ç 275 ÷ çè 36 ÷ø ÷÷
è ø è ø
è ø
38 ´ 3.33 100
Lm £ = 1.409 m
0. 5
æ 14 2 2 ö
ç + æç 275 ö÷ æç 301
. ö
÷ ÷
ç 130 è 275 ø è 36 ø ÷
è ø
The first restraint below the haunch will, therefore, be 1.409 m below the
hinge position.
In many cases, the outside of the frame will have sheeting rails at
about 1.5 m centres to carry the vertical cladding. When this happens,
advantage may be taken of the restraint provided by the rails, assuming
they are firmly fixed to the leg. In this case, §5.3.4 may be invoked to
calculate the maximum distance between the restraints to the compres-
sion flange. This clause gives an equation for the maximum distances,
assuming restraint to the tension flange. The equations are derived from
the method given in Annex G of BS 5950. The reader must study the
requirements given in §5.3.4 as it is necessary to comply with them if
this method is to be used.

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Portal frame design 225

In this case the maximum distance to the next restraint is given as:

620ry
0. 5
éæ 100 ö ö÷ù
2
K1 êç 72 - æç ÷ ú
êëçè è x ø ÷øúû
Ds
Dh for grade S 275 steel
Where K1 has the following
Lh values:
Un-haunched segment K1 = 1
Dh D s = 1 K1 = 1.25
Dh D s = 2 K1 = 1.40

The method may be applied to a leg as well as a rafter. This results in a

maximum distance for this leg of:
620 ´ 3.33 ´ 10
= 2644 mm or 2.644 m
0. 5
æ 2 ö
. ´ ç 72 - æç
100 ö ÷
10
ç ÷ ÷
è è 301
. ø ø
The torsional index for this section (x) is 30.1.
It will be noticed that when the tension flange is held, there is a great gain
to be found in the leg stability. If this assumption is made then it is essential
that the engineer checks that there are no door or window openings which
inhibit the provision of restraint on the external flanges.

Rafter stability
The rafter must also be checked to find the maximum spacing of the
restraints, both at the plastic hinge positions and along the rest of its length.
Considering the plastic hinge position first. The limits are calculated in the
same way as for the leg without taking the restraint on the tension flange
into account.
For the rafter, the value of ry = 30.3 mm and the value of x = 38.9.
The compression force in the rafter is normally small and will not be
considered in this case. This reduces the formula to:
38ry
Lm £
0. 5
éæ p ö 2 2ù
êç y ÷ æç x ö÷ ú
êçè 275 ÷ø è 36 ø ú
ë û

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226 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

38 ´ 30.3
Lm = = 1065 mm or 1.065 m
0. 5
éæ 275 ö æ 38.9 ö ù
2 2
êç ÷ ç ÷ ú
êëè 275 ø è 36 ø úû
The rafter away from the plastic position is treated using the rules given in
§4.3, which have already been discussed.

Haunch stability
The stability of the haunch may be calculated using the simple, but slightly
conservative, rules given in §5.3.4 of BS 5950 or may be checked from the
rules in Annex G of BS 5950. For this example, the rules in §5.3.4 will be
adopted. Using the equation given in the checks on the frame legs and
substituting the values for the rafter, as given in the code, the maximum
distance between the restraints is:
620 ´ 3.03 ´ 10
= 1859 mm or 1.859 m
0. 5
é 100 ö ù
2
1.25 ´ ê72 - æç ÷ ú
êë è 38.9 ø úû

As the haunch will be 2.4 m long, this means that the haunch must be
restrained at 1.85 m from the face of the leg, and again at a point about
1.85 m further along the haunch. An improved spacing may be obtained by
using the rules in Annex G of BS 5950.

Frame stability
The structure must not be capable of becoming a mechanism in both the
longitudinal and transverse directions during erection and use. The possi-
bility of the gable end deflecting at the ridge due to wind loading on the
gable end must also be considered (see Fig. 10.11).

(c)
(a) (b)

Fig. 10.11.

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Portal frame design 227

The portal frame will provide transverse stiffness to the structure when it
is complete and the haunch and ridge joints are bolted up. The longitudinal
stability will be provided by vertical bracing in the side walls between the
stanchions of the portal frames. The effects of the wind on the gable ends
can be accommodated by the use of rafter bracing fixed under the purlins. It
is recommended that the bracing is placed in one bay from ridge to foun-
dations, rather than bracing one bay in the roof and another in the side walls.
Fig. 10.12 shows the end of a typical portal frame.
Often it will be found that in buildings with two or more bays the valley
stanchions will need to be braced, but the client may not permit the
obstruction to the free use of the building caused by the bracing. In these
cases, one solution is to provide the longitudinal strength required for
stability by adding a rectangular portal frame into the line of the valley.
The vertical bracing may not always be in the end, or ultimate, bay of the
structure. The reason for this is twofold:
• To reduce the concentrated stresses in the end bay due to a fixed
gable wall adjacent to a relatively less stiff portal frame.
• The end bay of the structure is frequently used as an entrance, and
provision must be made for a door opening, which would be
obstructed by the bracing.

Purlins Gable rafter bracing

Portal frame

Door
Sheeting rails
Gable bracing

Ultimate bay bracing

Fig. 10.12.

In both these cases, the bracing will be moved to the penultimate bay (see
Fig. 10.1). In very long buildings, the bracing may also be used in internal
bays to provide additional stiffness, especially if an expansion joint is

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228 Structural steel design to BS 5950: Part 1

required in the structure. For structures over a certain length (usually about
60 m), the provision of expansion joints is needed to reduce the thermal
stresses which arise from the changes in temperature, unless these are
included in the design.

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