Foundational consonant rules
Rule 1: C always softens to /s/ when followed by E, I, or Y. Otherwise, C says /k/.
center, accent, circus, accident, icy, agency, cynic
Knowing C says /s/ only before E, I, and Y also aids us when adding the common endings -ing, -
ed, and -y to words that end with C. We must add K to protect the C from softening to /s/
panicking, mimicking, frolicked, trafficky
Interestingly, native English words prevent the need for adding K before the common endings -
ing, -ed, and -y by having a spelling of /k/ which insulates the C: CK
pack + ing = packing
trick + y = tricky
peck + ing = pecking
luck + y = lucky
Rule 2: G may soften to /j/ only when followed by E, I, or Y. Otherwise, G says /g/.
germ, angelic, ginger, agile, biology, allergy
This rule is related to Rule 1. However, there is one key difference: G may say /j/ . . . but it does
not always.
get, anger, gift, begin, gynecology
When G is not followed by an E, I, or Y, it must say /g/:
before the vowels A, O, U
gap, cardigan, goat, go, begun, configure
before a consonant
glad, granular
at the end of word
egg, crag, leg
Italian words insert a silent letter H to separate the G from an E or an I to retain the hard /g/
sound, forming the advanced phonogram GH
ghetto, spaghetti
French and Spanish words insert a silent letter U to separate the G from E or I to retain the hard
/g/ sound, forming the phonogram GU
plague, guide, guerilla, guitar
This rule also helps to explain the multi-letter phonogram DGE. G is followed by an E, causing
the G to say /j/
judge, bridge, edge, budget, gadget
Rule 3: English words do not end in I, U, V, or J.
English words also do not end in J. When the sound /j/ is heard at the end of a word, there are
two common spellings:
1. The first is the multi-letter phonogram DGE
edge, dodge, knowledge
2. The second is G followed by a silent final E
large, age, change, marriage
Foundational vowel rules
English Words Do Not End in I
Rule 3: English words do not end in I, U, V, or J.
The relationship between I and Y
The I/Y relationship is first seen in their shared vowel and consonant /y/ sound:
Pronunciation i y
/ĭ/ mitt myth
Jim gym
/ī/ kind rhyme
line type
/ē/ piano lady
radius ability
/j/ or /y/ union yarn
onion yesterday
opinion lawyer
brilliant canyon
Because English words do not end in I, Y covers for I at the end of English words. Whenever the
vowel sound /ī/ is heard at the end of the word, Y must be written instead.
cry, try, my
The rule also governs usage of the following phonogram pairs
Phonogram Pair May use at the end word May not use at the end of word
ay/ai tray disdain
Phonogram Pair May use at the end word May not use at the end of word
ey/ei they vein
oy/oi toy toil
Vowels at the End of Syllables
Rule 4: A E I O U usually say their names at the end of a syllable.
fa mous de sire chi na o pen u nit
ba sin be fore spi der ro bot hu man
Conversely, vowels usually say their first or short sound when they are found in the middle of the
syllable
ta per tap per
be low bel low
di ner din ner
to paz top ple
cu bic cub by
cy cle cyl in der
Rule 5: I may say short /ĭ/ at the end of a syllable
This rule is related to Rule 4
fam-i-ly, med-i-cine, def-i-nite, con-di-tion, di-vide, ad-di-tion, pos-i-tive
Rule 6: When a one-syllable word ends in a single vowel Y, it says /ī/.
by, my, try, why, fry, fly
This rule also does not limit the pronunciation of Y in multisyllabic words. Y does say /ī/ at the
end of a few multisyllabic words and with the suffix -ify.
apply, deny, simplify, horrify
Rule 7.1: Multi-syllable words ending in "y" usually have the /ē/ sound.
baby, happy, berry, charity, ability, archeology
Rule 7.2: I says /ē/ at the end of a syllable that is followed by a vowel and at the end of foreign
words.
stadium, radius, olympian, radiator, helium, piano
spaghetti, pastrami, Helsinki
Spellings for Long I and Long O
Rule 8: I and O may say /ī/ and /ō/ when followed by two consonants.
Long /ō/ Short /ŏ/ Long /ī/ Short /ĭ/
bold bond pint print
poll pond rind rink
Spellings for /ā/ and /ä/
Rule 9: AY usually spells the sound /ā/ at the end of a base word.
may, portray, pay, dismay
There are only ten commonly known words which use the phonogram to spell the long sound /ā/
at the end of the word. These are: they, convey, obey, hey, ley, osprey, prey, purvey, survey, and
whey.
Rule 10: When a word ends with the phonogram A, it says /ä/.
zebra, stamina, alpha, area, arena, banana, beta, dilemma, trauma, tuna
The Phonogram QU
Rule 11: Q always needs a U; therefore, U is not a vowel here.
queen, quit, quality
Silent final e
Type 1: Long Vowels
Rule 12.1: The vowel says its name because of the E.
cape, pipe, type, bone, cute
This also may occur with two consonants separating the vowel from the silent E
paste, clothe, change, waste, strange
Type 2: V and U
Rule 12.2: English words do not end in V or U.
have, live, valve, additive, adjective
true, blue, argue, value, rescue, venue
Type 3: C and G
Rule 12.3: The C says /s/ and the G says /j/ because of the E.
choice, force, voice, commerce, absence, abundance
change, cage, barge, orange, avenge, language
Type 4: Syllables
Rule 12.4: Every syllable must have a written vowel.
table, bicycle, bundle, waffle, google, freckle, maple, isle, turtle, puzzle, acre, centre
Type 5: Distinguish Singular from Plural
Rule 12.5: Add an E to keep singular words that end in the letter S from looking plural.
house, mouse, purse, goose, moose, purchase
tease, please, amuse
Type 6: To Make the Word Look Bigger
Rule 12.6: Add an E to make the word look bigger.
awe, ewe, rye, owe, tie, are
Type 7: Voiced and Unvoiced TH
Rule 12.7: TH says its voiced sound /TH/ because of the E.
breathe, bathe, loathe, soothe
Type 8: Clarify Meaning
Rule 12.8: Add an E to clarify meaning.
or ore
teas tease
hears hearse
Type 9: Unseen Reason
Rule 12.9: Unseen reason
one, come, some, giraffe, where, were
Adding suffixes
Adding Suffixes to Silent Final E Words
Rule 13: Drop the silent final E when adding a vowel suffix only if it is allowed by other spelling
rules.
This rule leads us to two questions that must be asked when adding a suffix to silent final E
words:
1. Are we adding a vowel suffix?
In the following examples, notice why the E is needed and that it is always retained when
adding a consonant suffix:
like + ly = likely
achieve + ment = achievement
force + ful = forceful
puzzle + ment = puzzlement
amuse + ment = amusement
awe + some = awesome
2. Is dropping the E allowed by other spelling rules?
i.e: C says /s/ before E, I, and Y. G may say /j/ before E, I, and Y
In each of these words, both of the key questions may be answered with “yes.” The added suffix
begins with a vowel, and the E is not needed for a C or G. So the E may be dropped
like + ing = liking
have + ing = having
puzzle + ing = puzzling
owe + ing = owing
hope + ing = hoping
achieve + ed = achieved
tease + ing = teasing
teethe + ing = teething
notice + ing = noticing
service + ed = serviced
encourage + ing = encouraging
charge + ing = charging
advantage + ed = advantaged
In the following words, E cannot be dropped
notice + able = noticeable
service + able = serviceable
charge + able = chargeable
advantage + ous = advantageous
courage + ous = courageous
Words ending in one vowel and one consonant
Rule 14: Double the last consonant when adding a vowel suffix to words ending in one vowel
followed by one consonant, only if the syllable before the suffix is accented.
Rule 14 does not apply to base words ending with multi-letter vowel phonograms such as: ee, ea,
ai etc., followed by one consonant.
sleep +ing = sleeping
treat + ed = treated
restrain + ing = restraining
appear + ance = appearance
Double the last consonant only after one consonant that is seen and heard. Do not double the
last consonant if the word ends in more than one consonant.
pick + ing = picking
sing + ing = singing
arrest + ing = arresting
comb +ed = combed
Do not double the last consonant if the word ends in X. The phonogram X represents two heard
consonant sounds: /k/ and /s/.
tax + ing = taxing
fix + ed = fixed
relax + ing = relaxing
The multi-letter phonogram QU represents the sound /kw/. Q always needs a U; U is not a vowel
here. Since the U is not a vowel but part of a multi-letter phonogram, double the last consonant
before adding a vowel suffix if the word conforms to Rule 14.
quit +ing = quitting
quiz + ed = quizzed
Likewise, the phonograms AW, OW, and EW are multi-letter vowel phonograms. W is not a
consonant in these phonograms, just as U is not a vowel in the phonogram QU. Therefore, do not
double the last consonant when adding a vowel suffix.
show +ing = showing
allow +ance = allowance
saw + ing = sawing
few + est = fewest
The R-controlled phonograms AR, ER, IR, and UR represent one distorted vowel sound followed
by one consonant sound. Since one vowel and one consonant are both seen and heard, double the
last consonant before adding a vowel suffix.
star + ing = starring
stir + ed = stirred
blur + y = blurry
Adding vowel suffixes to single Y words
Rule 15: Single vowel Y changes to I when adding any ending, unless the ending begins with I.
busy + ness = business
try + es = tries
cry + er = crier
worry + some = worrisome
ornery + est = orneriest
happy + ness = happiness
puppy + es = puppies
baby + es = babies
salary + es = salaries
cuddly + er = cuddlier
This rule only applies to a single vowel Y. The multi-letter phonograms OY, AY, and EY are two-
letter vowels. The Y does not change to I when adding a suffix to words ending with a multi-
letter phonogram.
boy + s = boys
stray + ed = strayed
survey + ed = surveyed
annoy + ed = annoyed
play + er = player
attorney + s = attorneys
Rule 16: Two I’s cannot be next to one another in English words.
We do not change Y to I in the following words:
study + ing = studying
cry + ing = crying
worry + ing = worrying
clarify +ing = clarifying
baby + ish = babyish
simplify + ing = simplifying
Summary: Adding a suffix to any word
Silent Final E:
Are we adding a vowel suffix?
Is dropping the E allowed by other spelling rules?
(Remember: C says /s/ before E, I, and Y. G may say /j/ before E, I, and Y.)
If yes: Drop the E and add the suffix.
One Vowel + One Consonant:
Are we adding a vowel suffix?
Is the syllable before the suffix accented?
If yes: Double the last consonant and add the suffix.
If no: Just add the suffix.
Single Vowel Y:
Does the word end with a single vowel Y?
Does the suffix begin with any letter except I?
If yes: Change the Y to I and add the suffix.
If no: Retain the Y and add the suffix.
Latin spelling of /sh/: TI, CI, SI
Rule 17+18: /sh/ is spelled SH at the beginning of words and the end of syllables, including "-
ship," while in later syllables, TI, CI, or SI (followed by a vowel) are used at the start of the
syllable.
Start of words:
SH says /sh/ at the beginning.
Examples: ship, shadow.
End of syllables:
SH says /sh/ at the end of syllables.
Examples: finish, establish.
Middle of words:
Usually, /sh/ is spelled TI, CI, SI (with a vowel after) in the middle. These start the
middle syllables.
Examples: nation (ti), social (ci), pension (si).
"-ship" ending:
"-ship" always uses SH.
Examples: friendship, relationship.
Past tense verbs
Pronunciation of ‘-ed’
Rule 19, Rule 20: trivial
Patterns of irregular verbs
https://www.davidappleyard.com/english/irregular-verb-conjugations.html
Forming plural nouns and singular verbs
Rule 21, Rule 22: trivial
Clearing confusion about “AL-” and “-FUL”
Rule 23: AL- is a prefix written with one L when preceding another syllable.
almost, also, always, although
Rule 24: -FUL is a suffix written with one L when added to another syllable.
truthful, regretful, eventful, useful
Remember: single vowel Y changes to I when adding any ending unless the ending begins with I
beauty + ful = beautiful
bounty + ful = bountiful
mercy + ful = merciful
However, when forming compound words, the two base words do not change
body + work = bodywork
cry + baby = crybaby
any + one = anyone
The final spelling rules
Rule 25: DGE is used only after a single vowel which says its short (first) sound.
badge, ledge, bridge, lodge, judge
Since English words do not end in I, U, V, or J, is a common spelling of the sound /j/ at the end of
words.
When the sound /j/ is heard at the end of the word and is preceded by a consonant or a long vowel
sound, it is spelled G followed by a silent final E.
large, gorge, charge, rage, huge, age
Rule 26: CK is used only after a single vowel which says its short (first) sound.
back, lock, neck, truck
Rule 27: TCH is used only after a single vowel which does not say its name.
match, etch, glitch, splotch, hutch, butcher
Rule 28: AUGH, EIGH, IGH, OUGH. Phonograms ending in GH are used only at the end of a
base word or before the letter T. The GH is either silent or pronounced /f/.
laugh, weigh, igh, tough
caught, weight, night, bought
In seven words the GH is pronounced /f/:
enough, rough, laugh, draught, cough, trough, tough
Rule 29: Z, never S, spells /z/ at the beginning of a base word.
zipper, zoo, zebra
Rule 30: We often double F, L, and S after a single vowel at the end of a base word. Occasionally
other letters also are doubled.
off, ball, loss
ebb, odd, egg, inn, watt, jazz
