Chapter -1

Introduction to Structures
 The art of structural design is manifested in the selection of the most suitable structural system for
a given structure.

 The arrangement of beams and columns to support the vertical (gravity) loads and the selection of
a suitable structural system to resist the horizontal (lateral) loads pose a great challenge to the
structural engineer, as these factors will determine the economy and functional suitability of the
building.

Classification of RC Structures

1. Gravity masonry structures: This consists of load-bearing walls, which resist loads transmitted to
them by floor slabs. The stability of the structure depends on gravity loads. These are suitable only
for buildings with up to two or three floors.

2. Framed structures: This consists of a concrete skeleton that collects loads from plate elements
(concrete floors and masonry/RC walls) and transmits them to the foundations.

3. Shell or folded plate structures: These are curved or folded surfaces enclosing the area and
carrying loads.

4. Other structures: These include structures and structural elements such as silos or bunkers,
retaining walls, liquid retaining structures, chimneys, poles, and foundations for which RC is the
ideal material of construction.

Examples of RC structures (a) Load-bearing brick wall with concrete slabs

 An RC structure consists of different structural elements. It may also contain non-structural

 The function of any structure is to resist the applied loads effectively and to transmit the resulting
forces to the supporting ground without differential settlement.

 The structure should also satisfy serviceability requirements, be durable, and should not pose
problems of maintenance.

 The most common RC construction is the building such as a typical two-story building as shown
in Fig,which has a slab-and-beam system, in which the slabs span between the beams (in the
following slide).

 In load-bearing wall systems, instead of the beam and column, the concrete slabs rest directly on
the masonry wall.

Basic Structural Elements

Footings

 Footings distribute the load they receive from columns or walls to the soil underneath in such a
way that settlement, particularly uneven or relative settlement, of the structure is limited and
failure of the underlying soil is avoided.

 The size of footings is so chosen that the pressure under them is less than the allowable bearing
pressure of the soil.
  When there are lateral or uplift loads, footings are required to provide sufficient resistance to
sliding and overturning.

 If good bearing strata are not available at a reasonable depth, the use of deep foundations may be
warranted.

Types of footings (a) Wall footing (b) Isolated spread footing (c) Sloped footing (d) Combined
footing (e) Raft foundation (f) Pile foundation

Columns

 Columns are vertical structural elements that transfer the load from the beams to the foundations.
They are classified as short (or stocky) columns or long (or slender) columns.

 When columns carry only axial load they are called axially loaded columns. However, in actual
practice, due to the eccentricity of loads, imperfections in their construction, and so forth, there
may be moments in the columns.

 There may be bending moments due to the rigid frame actions or lateral loads. Such columns with
large bending moments are called beam columns. Beam columns may carry uniaxial or even
biaxial bending moments.

 Reinforced concrete columns with rectangular or square shapes are often used because of the
simplicity of constructing the formwork. Circular shapes are attractive in open spaces. Square and
circular shapes are also preferable in high earthquake zones. L-, + -, and T-shaped columns are
also used on rare occasions.

 Reinforcement in the form of longitudinal bars is often provided to increase the load-carrying
capacity of plain concrete columns in the form of closely spaced ties and helical spirals, composite
compression members or composite columns.
Different types of columns (a) Square-tied column (b) Circular spirally reinforced column
(c) Composite columns

Beams

 A beam is a structural element that is primarily subjected to bending.

 Beams support the slabs and transfer the load applied on slabs to columns. Secondary beams may
transfer the load to main beams, which, in turn, transfer the load to columns. RC beams are
normally cast monolithically with slabs. As a result, the two parts act together to resist the loads.

 Though beams are normally rectangular in shape, some extra slab width at the top, called flange,
is assumed to act together in the design. The resulting beams are called L-beams or T-beams,
depending on whether flanges are on only one side or on both the sides. The most efficient cross
section for a simply supported beam is an I- or H-section beam.

Different types of beams (a) Rectangular (b) L-section (c) T-section (d) I-section (e) Box section(f) Steel–Concrete
composite beam
Beams

 RC beams are designed for bending moment and shear force. Longitudinal reinforcements are
provided to resist the tension produced by bending moments and stirrups are provided to resist the
shear forces.

 Beams in frames subjected to lateral loads may have to be designed to resist reversal of
moments and additional axial forces.

 Beams can be singly or doubly reinforced, depending on whether they are reinforced only in the
tension zone or reinforced with steel in both the compression and tension zones, respectively.
They can also be simply supported, continuous, or cantilevered.

Typical Reinforcement Details in a Beam

Typical
reinforcement details in a beam

Walls

 Walls are vertical elements and are of masonry or RC construction.

 Walls may be of different types such as load-bearing walls, shear walls, retaining walls, and
partition walls.

 When they support gravity loads in buildings, they are called load-bearing walls and when they
resist lateral loads due to wind or earthquake, they are called shear walls.

 A coupled wall is a form of shear wall, often found in practice, which consists of two or more
shear walls in the same plane, connected at the floor levels by beams.

Slabs

 Buildings and bridges require a floor slab to provide protection for occupants and for the vehicles
to pass through, respectively.

 Concrete is the ideal material of choice for the slab because its mass and stiffness can be used to
reduce deflections and vibrations of the floor system and to provide the required fire protection.

 Slabs can be simply supported, continuous, or cantilevered. Slabs are supported on beams, which
are, in turn, supported by columns.
 They are classified in many ways such as one-way, two-way, flat slabs, waffle slabs, and ribbed
(joist) slabs.

One-way and Two-way Slab Systems

Types of slab designs (a) One-way slabs (b) Two-way slabs

One-way Slab

 One-way slabs, supported by parallel walls or beams, bend in only one direction and transfer
their loads to the two opposite support walls or beams.

 Even when a rectangular slab is supported on all the four edges, the slab may be considered as a
one-way slab if the length-to-breadth (L/B) ratio of the slab is equal to or greater than two.

 A one-way slab is designed for the spanning direction alone; the main tension reinforcing bars
of such slabs run parallel to the span. For the transverse direction, a minimum amount of
shrinkage reinforcement is provided.

 One-way slab action is assumed in a ribbed floor (slab with joist beams) made of precast
double tee sections, in ribbed floor with integral beams, and also in hollow-block or -cored slabs.
 Plan view of one-way slab (a)
Supported on two opposite edges (b) Supported on all edges (L/B > 2)

Two-way Slab

 When the ratio of long side to short side of a slab is less than two, it is called two-way slab.

Two-way slabs bend and deflect in double curvature

Choice of Materials

 Masonry

 Steel

 Reinforced concrete

 Mixed or composite systems

 Prestressed Concrete

Structural System Classifications

• Gravity systems - Gravity systems-Floor framing systems-carry all floor gravity loads-floor
systems to foundation

• Lateral Systems - Lateral systems refers to the vertical framing systems –required to resist lateral
loads
Factors influencing the structural systems

 Appropriate structural framing systems depends upon combination of several factors

 Design of lateral loads – WL ,EQ L

 Strength design criteria

 Serviceability criteria –cracking, drift ratio

 Height to width ratio

 Type of occupancy

 Soil condition and related foundation systems

 Consideration of fire rating and related codal requirements

 Choice of materials and availability and cost of such materials

 Methods of construction and their economic impact on the choice

 Cost of land and cost of financing.

 Building form like tapered, stepped circular etc

 Architectural design and its investigation

 In earthquake prone zones

 Resist minor Lateral loads without any damage

 Resist moderate Lateral loads without significant structural damage

 Resist major Lateral loads without collapse and without loss of life and property

 Maintenance consideration

Structural system should able to provide the following features

 Adequate strength to resist all applied load

 Adequate lateral stiffness to control drift due to lateral load

 Have enough ductility and energy absorbing capability as well as appropriate energy dissipating
mechanism to sustain Lateral load

 Possessing suitable dynamic characteristics to restrict the motion to permissible levels which can
be achieved by supplementing with appropriate damping systems
  As the height of the structures increases so also its cost

 Gravity systems generally governs the design of low rise building

 A well planned building will always end up in a simple and economic structural systems

 Every building is unique. Therefore there always exists a necessity for the evaluation of story
structural systems

 Design development – it is close interaction exits between structural engineering and architect to
deliver structural sound systems

Lateral Load Resisting Systems

 Advances in structural engineering analysis and design procedures as well as the invention of
high-strength materials have resulted in tall structures with reduced building weight and increased
slenderness that need to resist gravity loads as well as lateral loads such as wind and earthquake.

 The taller the building, the more necessary it is to identify the proper structural system for
resisting the lateral loads.

Classification of Structural Systems

1. Rigid frame systems

2. Shear-walled frame systems

3. Outrigger and belt truss systems

4. Framed-tube systems

5. Braced-tube systems

6. Bundled-tube systems

Rigid or Moment-resisting Frames

 Rigid or moment-resisting frames are structures having the traditional beam-column framing.
The joints in these frames are considered rigid, because it is assumed that beam-to-column
connections have enough rigidity to hold the nearly unchanged original angles between
intersecting components.

 Rigid frames carry the gravity loads that are imposed on the floor system. The floors also
function as horizontal diaphragms that transfer lateral forces to the girders and columns.

 The girders or beams resist high moments and shears at the ends of their lengths, which are, in
turn, transferred to the column system.

 Rigid frame systems are not efficient for buildings with more than 20 storeys, because lateral
deflection due to the bending of columns causes excessive drift.
Shear-walled Frame Systems

 Shear walls are vertical, cantilevered walls, which resist lateral wind and seismic loads
acting on a building transmitted to them by the floor diaphragms.

 RC shear walls have the ability to dampen vibration and provide mass to a building.

 Shear walls often exist as core walls surrounding internal services such as elevators and
stairwells. When carefully planned, these walls may be used as partitions in a structure
serving as both gravity and lateral load resisting systems.

Outrigger and Belt Truss Systems

 The outrigger system comprises a central core, including either braced frames or shear
walls, with horizontal ‘outrigger’ trusses or girders connecting the core to the external
columns. They can resist high wind forces.

 If the building is subjected to horizontal loading, the rotation of the core is prevented by the
column-restrained outriggers.

 Multi-storey outriggers have better lateral resistance than single-storey outrigger structures
and thus better efficiency in the structural behaviour.
  The outriggers and belt girder are often one or two storeys deep to provide adequate
stiffness. They are generally positioned at plant levels to reduce the obstruction created by
them.

 Multi-storey outriggers have better lateral resistance than single-storey outrigger structures
and thus better efficiency in the structural behaviour.

Outrigger and belt truss system (a) Typical plan and section (b) Jin Mao Building, Shanghai, China
(c) Taipei 101, Taipei

Framed-tube Systems

 A framed tube consists of closely spaced perimeter columns interconnected by deep

 It is an efficient system to provide lateral resistance with or without interior columns. The
exterior tube carries all the lateral loading.

 Gravity loading is shared by the tube and the interior column or shear walls, if any.

 Besides its structural efficiency, framed-tube buildings leave the interior floor plan relatively
free of core bracing and heavy columns, enhancing the net usable floor area, as a result of
the perimeter framing system resisting the entire lateral load.
Braced-tube Systems

 By adding multi-storey diagonal bracings to the face of the tube, the rigidity and efficiency of
the framed-tube can be improved. The resulting system called braced-tube system, or trussed-tube
system, could be utilized for greater heights and allows larger spacing between the columns.

 The bracing helps the perimeter columns to act together in carrying both gravity and
horizontal wind loads.

Braced-tube systems (a) Typical bracing (b) Onterie Center, Chicago

Tube-in-tube and Bundled-tube Systems

 The stiffness of a framed tube can also be enhanced by using the core to resist part of the
lateral load resulting in a tube-in-tube system as shown in Fig .
 The floor diaphragm connecting the core and the outer tube transfer the lateral loads to both
the tubes.
 The core itself could be made up of a solid tube, a braced tube, or a framed tube. It is also
possible to introduce more than one tube inside the perimeter tube.

Bundled Tube System

1. Bundled tube or a modular tube is a cluster of tubes interconnected with common interior panels
to generate a perforated multicell tube as shown . This is used to give adequate structural
efficiency to a larger building dimension.

a) Tube-in-tube system (b) Bundled-tube systems

 Localized damage (due to accidental loads, blast loads, etc.) of a major structural support may
spread from element to element, resulting in the collapse of the entire structure. Hence, the extent
of total damage may be disproportionate to the original cause. This sequence of failure is usually
termed progressive collapse.

 Structural integrity can be accomplished by providing sufficient continuity, redundancy, or

 All the perimeter or spandrel beams should be provided with continuous top and bottom
reinforcement. Precast concrete or other heavy floor or roof units must be properly anchored at
both ends.

Tying columns to building to achieve structural integrity

Loads & Load Combination

 Determination of various loads is a very important phase in a structural design process.

 Before designing any structure or the different elements such as beams and columns, one has to
first determine the various natural and man-made loads acting on them.

 Dead loads, imposed loads, snow, ice, and earth loads, and hydraulic pressure are caused due to
mass and gravitational effect.

 Indirect loads are caused due to environmental effects such as temperature difference, settlement,
and shrinkage.
Types of loads

 The determination of the loads for which a given structure has to be proportioned is one of the
most difficult problems in design.

 Decisions are to be made on the type of loads the structure may experience during its lifetime,
combinations of loads, and so forth.

 The probability that a specific load will be exceeded during the life of a structure usually depends
on the period of exposure (or life) of the structure and the magnitude of design load.

 Loads applied to a structure during its life should be considered statistically and a characteristic
load determined.

Dead Loads

 The load that is fixed in magnitude and position is called the dead load.

 Determination of the dead load of a structure requires the estimation of the weight of the structure
together with its associated ‘non-structural’ components.

 After the design process, the initially assumed dead load of the structure (based on experience) has
to be compared with the actual dead load.

 If the difference between the two loads is significant, the assumed dead load should be revised and
the structure redesigned.

 Weights of Some Building Materials as per EBCS 1

Imposed Loads

 Imposed loads (also referred to as live loads) are gravity loads other than dead loads and include
items such as occupancy by people, movable equipment and furniture within the buildings, stored
materials such as books or machinery.
  The code provides uniformly distributed loads (UDLs) as well as concentrated loads for
various occupational categories. The distributed and concentrated imposed loads shall be
considered separately and the design carried out for the most adverse conditions.

 Live Loads on Floors as per EBCS 1

 Imposed load may change from room to room.

To account for the most adverse load cases, analysis should be carried out for the following:

 Factored live load on all spans

 Factored live load on two adjacent spans resulting in high bending moment (BMs) over the
support between the two loaded spans

 When large areas are considered, the code allows for a reduction in the imposed load, unless
earthquake loads are considered.

 EBCS 1 also provides the values of horizontal loads acting on parapets and balustrades.
These loads should be assumed to act at handrail or coping level.

 Roofs are considered non-accessible except for normal maintenance and minor repairs. If
roofs are frequently accessible and used for floor-type activities, they should be treated as
floors and the corresponding loads should be considered.

Consideration of Slab Loads on Beams

One-way Slab When a slab is supported on four sides and the length to width ratio is greater than
two, the slab acts as a one-way slab and the beams along the long spans are assumed to carry the
load from the slab.
Two-way Slab

 In two-way slabs (i.e., when a slab is supported on four sides and the length to width ratio is lesser
than or equal to two), the load distribution is based on yield-line analysis.

 In a square slab, the yield lines running at 45° from each corner will meet at a single point in the
centre.

 In a rectangular slab, the same four yield lines will not meet at one point, and hence, there will be
a fifth yield line running between the intersections of these yield lines. Thus, the long beams will
be subjected to a trapezoidal load and the short beams to a triangular load.

Impact Loads

 Impact due to vertical crane, moving machinery, and so on is converted empirically into
equivalent static loads through an impact factor, which is normally a percentage (20% to 100%) of
the machinery load .

 The loads due to cranes and other machineries are often obtained from the manufacturers or
suppliers.

 The impact load is an important criterion in industrial buildings where machinery will be mounted
on floors and also in bridges.
Wind Loads

 Winds are produced by the differences in atmospheric pressures, which are primarily due to the
differences in temperature.

 Horizontal wind flow exerts lateral pressure on the building envelope and hence has to be
considered in the design.

 EBCS -1 provides the basic wind speeds, averaged over a short interval of 3 seconds and having a
50-year return period at 10 m height above ground level in different parts of the country.

Wind Loads

The wind load on a building can be calculated for the following:

1. The building as a whole

2. Individual structural elements such as roofs and walls

3. Individual cladding units including glazing and their fixings

Earthquake Loads

In EBCS -8 codes, the following seismic design philosophy has been adopted:

 Minor and frequent earthquakes should not cause any damage to the structure.

 Moderate earthquakes should not cause significant structural damage but could have some
non-structural damage (structure will become operational once the repair and strengthening of
the damaged main members are completed).

 Major and infrequent earthquakes should not cause collapse (the structure will become dis
functional for further use, but will stand so that people can be evacuated and property
recovered).

Thermal and Shrinkage Effects

 If the lateral dimension of the building exceeds 45 m, temperature effects must be considered in
the design, or suitable expansion or contraction joints should be provided.

 Structures that have abrupt changes in plan should be provided with expansion joints at places
where such changes occur. These expansion joints facilitate the necessary movements to occur
with minimum resistance at the joint.

 The spacing of expansion joints is affected by many factors such as building shape, material type
and associated properties, restraints to movement such as walls and bracing and their relative
location in the structure, etc.

 Temperature stresses are important in the design of chimneys, cooling towers, and structures
designed to resist loads due to fires.
  Slabs and other elements exposed to the sun’s radiation also develop temperature stresses. In such
occasions, nominal reinforcements are often provided, close to the surface that is being affected, to
take care of temperature and shrinkage.

 Concrete shrinks as it dries out. Usually, slabs and other members are joined rigidly to other parts
of the structure and cannot contract freely. This will result in tensile stresses, known as shrinkage
stresses.

Soil and Hydrostatic Pressure

 In the design of structures below ground level, for example, basement walls and retaining walls,
the pressure exerted by the soil or water, or both, must be considered.

 All foundation slabs and other footings below the water table should be designed to resist a
uniformly distributed uplift equal to the full hydrostatic pressure.

 The structures should be checked against overturning and horizontal sliding.

 Due consideration should be given to the possibility of the soil being permanently or temporarily
removed and for the foundation under submerged condition.

Erection and Construction Loads

 Erection loads are very important for precast concrete members. It is also important to temporarily
brace the structures during erection for safety and stability.

 The construction of slabs in multi-storey RC construction often employs shoring and formwork
such that the weight of the newly cast slab plus the working load are transferred to one or more
previously placed slabs.

 Insufficient support will result in serviceability problems such as deflected slabs and beams with
radial cracks around columns.

 Formwork should not be removed until the concrete attains the strength sufficient to carry the
construction loads. It is also important to have one level of shores and two levels of reshores to
distribute the load to several levels.
 Flood Loads

 It is necessary to protect structures against such floods as the warming up of the atmosphere has
resulted in heavy, unprecedented floods in several parts of the world.

 Storm-induced erosion and localized scour can lower the ground surface around the foundations of
buildings and cause loss of load-bearing capacity and loss of resistance to lateral and uplift loads.

Axial Shortening of Columns

 Axial shortening of columns due to long-term creep and shrinkage is inevitable in tall RC
buildings having 30 storeys or more.

 The calculation of the exact values of axial shortening depends on a number of parameters such as
the type of concrete, reinforcement ratio, and the rate and sequence of construction.

 Long-term shortening of columns could affect the horizontal structural members such as beams
and floors and hence could affect the finishes and partitions.