1.

Familiarization with Resistor

Aim of the experiment
At the end of the experiment the student would be able to

• Explain the function and unit of Resistors

• Measure the value of a Resistor
• Measure the Tolerance of a Resistor
• Explain the types of Resistors

Theory
Types of Resistors

Reading Value of Fixed Resistors

• Resistors are color coded as they are too small for the value to be written on them.
• There are 4 or 5 bands of color. Value of a Resistor is decoded from these bands of
colors.
 Figure: 1.1

Figure: 1.2

Reading Value: Step 1

• If your resistor has four color bands, turn the resistor so that the gold or silver band is on
right hand side or the end with more bands should point left.

Figure: 1.3
Reading Value: Step 2

The first band is now on the left hand side. This represents the first digit .Based on the color
make a note of the digit. In this case- 4 band its ‘5’ and for 5 band its ‘2’.

Figure: 1.4

Reading Value: Step 3

The second band represents the second digit. The colors represent the same numbers as did the
first digit .In this case -4 band its’6’ and for 5 band its’3’.

Figure: 1.5
Reading Value: Step 4

The third band divulges how many zeros to add/divide to the first two numbers –for a 4 band
Resistor. In this case – 4 band its ‘4’ zeroes to be added. So value is 560K.

Figure: 1.6

Reading Value: Step 5

The third band denotes the 3rd digit – for a 5 band Resistor. In this case -5 band its ‘7’. So the
value of the 5 band resistor is 237 Ohms as its multiplier digit is ‘0.

Figure: 1.7
Tolerance

The last band denotes the tolerance. So the value of the 4 band resistor it is +/- 10% while for the
5 band resistor it is +/- 1%.

Figure: 1.8

• Tolerance of a Resistor is also an important property to consider.

• A 100 ohm resistor with a 10 % tolerance can mean its value can be any fixed value
between 90 to 110 Ohms.
• A 120 Ohm resistor with a 10 % tolerance can mean its value can be any fixed value
between 108 and 132 Ohms.
• So there is some overlap between 100 Ohm and 120 Ohm resistance in terms of its limits.

Mnemonic to Remember
Carbon Film Resistors

• Most general purpose ,cheap resistor

• Tolerance of Resistance value is usually +/- 5%
• Power ratings of 1/8 W ,1/4 W and ½ W are usually used
• Con:Tend to be electrically noisy

Metal Film Resistor

• Used when higher tolerance is needed, ie more value.

• They have about +/- 0.05% tolerance
Wire Wound Resistors

• A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and because of this they can be
manufactured to precise values
• Also, high wattage resistors can be made by thick wire material
• Wire wound resistors in a ceramic case are called as ceramic resistors
• Wire wound resistors in a ceramic case are called as ceramic resistors

Result: The value and tolerance of the resistance is measured by using colour coding

Signature of the student Signature of the faculty

 2. V-I Characteristics of a Diode
Aim of the experiment
At the end of the experiment, the student should be able to

• Explain the structure of a P-N junction diode

• Explain the function of a P-N junction diode
• Explain forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode
• Explain forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Germanium diode

Theory

Structure of P-N junction diode

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material. The
lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to the n-type
material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on the diode.

Function of a P-N junction diode in Forward Bias

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side (anode) and the negative terminal of
battery is connected to the N side (cathode) of a diode, the holes in the p-type region and the
electrons in the n-type region are pushed toward the junction and start to neutralize the depletion
zone, reducing its width. The positive potential applied to the p-type material repels the holes,
while the negative potential applied to the n-type material repels the electrons. The change in
potential between the p side and the n side decreases or switches sign. With increasing forward-
bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the zone's electric field
cannot counteract charge carrier motion across the p–n junction, which as a consequence reduces
electrical resistance. The electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-type material (or holes
that cross into the n-type material) will diffuse into the nearby neutral region. The amount of
minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that may flow
through the diode.

Function of a P-N junction diode in Reverse Bias

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side (cathode) and the negative terminal of
battery is connected to the P side (anode) of a diode. Therefore, very little current will flow until
the diode breaks down.

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of
battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode, the 'holes' in the p-type material are pulled
away from the junction, leaving behind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion
region to increase. Likewise, because the n-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the
electrons will also be pulled away from the junction, with similar effect. This increases the
voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal
electric current to cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in
the junction behaving as an insulator. The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases
as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical
level, the p–n junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either
the Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-
destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that
cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damage.

Forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in forward biasing
because the forward biasing will decrease the depletion region width and overcome the barrier
potential. In order to conduct, the forward biasing voltage should be greater than the barrier
potential. During forward biasing the diode acts like a closed switch with a potential drop of
nearly 0.6 V across it for a silicon diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a silicon
diode. From the graph, you may notice that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias
voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the diode does not
conduct electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an increase in the depletion region width; hence
current carrier charges find it more difficult to overcome the barrier potential. The diode will act
like an open switch and there is no current flow.

Forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Germanium diode

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in forward biasing
because the forward biasing will decrease the depletion region width and overcome the barrier
potential. In order to conduct, the forward biasing voltage should be greater than the barrier
potential. During forward biasing the diode acts like a closed switch with a potential drop of
nearly 0.3 V across it for a germanium diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a
germanium diode. From the graph, you may notice that the diode starts conducting when the
forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.3 volts (for Ge diode). This voltage is called cut-in
voltage.

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the diode does not
conduct electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an increase in the depletion region width; hence
current carrier charges find it more difficult to overcome the barrier potential. The diode will act
like an open switch and there is no current flow.

Diode Equation

In the forward-biased and reversed-biased regions, the current If, and the voltage Vf, of a
semiconductor diode are related by the diode equation:
𝑉𝑓
𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼𝑠 𝜂𝑉
(𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑇 − 1)

Where,
Is is reverse saturation current or leakage current,
If is current through the diode (forward current),
Vf is potential difference across the diode terminals (forward voltage)
VT is thermal voltage, given by

𝐾𝑇
𝑉𝑇 =
𝑞
k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10−23 J /°Kelvin, q is the electronic charge = 1.6x10−19
joules/volt (Coulombs), T is the absolute temperature in °Kelvin (°K = 273 + temperature in °C),
At room temperature (25 °C), the thermal voltage is about 25.7 mV, n is an empirical constant
between 0.5 and 2

The empirical constant, n, is a number that can vary according to the voltage and current levels.
It depends on electron drift, diffusion, and carrier recombination in the depletion region. Among
the quantities affecting the value of n are the diode manufacture, levels of doping and purity of
materials.
𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑇
If n=1, the value of is 26 mV at 25°C. When n=2, the value of becomes 52 mV. For
𝑞 𝑞
germanium diodes, n is usually considered to be close to 1. For silicon diodes, n is in the range of
1.3 to 1.6.

Note
1. Ideal Diode Model: Diode is a simple switch that is either closed (conducting) or open
(non conducting). Specifically, the diode is a short circuit, like a closed switch, when
voltage is applied in the forward direction, and an open circuit, like an open switch, when
the voltage is applied in the reverse direction.
2. Offset Voltage Model: The offset voltage model adds the barrier potential to the ideal
switch model. When the diode is forward biased it is equivalent to a closed switch in
series with a small equivalent voltage source equal to the barrier potential (0.6 V for
Silicon, 0.2 for germanium) with the positive side towards the anode. When the diode is
reversing biased, it is equivalent to an open switch just as in the ideal model.
3. Complete diode Model: It is the most accurate of the diode models. The Complete diode
model of a diode consists of the barrier potential, the small forward dynamic resistance
and the ideal diode. The resistor approximates the semiconductor resistance under
forward bias. This diode model most accurately represents the true operating
characteristics of the real diode.
4. When a diode is reversing biased leakage current flows through the device. This current
can be effectively ignored as long as the reverse breakdown voltage of the diode is not
exceeded. At potentials greater than the reverse breakdown voltage, charge is pulled
through the p-n junction by the strong electric fields in the device and large reverse
current flows. This usually destroys the device. There are special diodes that are designed
 to operate in breakdown. Such diodes are called zener diodes and used as voltage
regulators.

When is each Model used?

Ideal Diode Model: This is primarily used in troubleshooting. Is the diode working or not. The
greatest utility of the ideal diode model is in determining which diodes are on and which are off
in a multi-diode circuit.

Offset Voltage Model: This is used when a more accurate determination of load current or
voltage is required.

Complete Diode Model: This is use during the actual design of circuits using diodes.

Procedure
Forward Bias-Si Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V.

2. Select the diode.
3. Set the resistor.
4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.
5. The positive side of battery to the P side (anode) and the negative of battery to the N side
(cathode) of the diode.

6. Now vary the voltage up to 5V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for
particular DC voltage.
 7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter reading.
8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
9. Calculate the dynamic resistance of the diode. rd=ΔV/ΔI
10. Therefore from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias
voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

Reverse Bias-Si Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .

2. Select the diode.
3. Set the resistor.
4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.
5. The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side (cathode) and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the P side (anode) of a diode.
6. Now vary the voltage up to 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC
voltage.
7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter reading.
8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.

Forward Bias-Ge Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V.

2. Use the resistor of 1K ohms and a Germanium diode.
3. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Germanium diode and ammeter series with resistor.
4. The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side (anode) and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the N side (cathode) of the diode.
 5. Now vary the voltage up to 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for
particular DC voltage.
6. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Germanium diode and Ammeter
reading.
7. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
8. Therefore from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias
voltage exceeds around 0.3 volts (for Ge diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

Reverse Bias-Ge Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V.

2. Use the resistor of 1K ohms and a Germanium diode.
3. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Germanium diode and ammeter series with resistor.
4. The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side (cathode) and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the P side (anode) of a diode.
5. Now vary the voltage up to 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC
voltage.
6. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter reading.
7. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
Simulation
Result: The cut in voltage of Si and Ge diode is measured practically by using virtual Lab
simulator.

Signature of the Student Signature of the faculty

 3.Zener Diode-Voltage Regulator
Aim of the experiment
At the end of the experiment, the student will be able to

• Explain the function of a Zener diode

• Explain Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

Theory

Zener Diode

A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the forward direction
as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above the
breakdown voltage or ‘zener’ voltage. Zener diodes are designed so that their breakdown voltage
is much lower - for example just 2.4 Volts.

Function of Zener Diode

1. Zener diodes are a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the forward
direction.
2. Zener diodes will also allow current to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is
above a certain value. This breakdown voltage is known as the Zener voltage. In a
standard diode, the Zener voltage is high, and the diode is permanently damaged if a
reverse current above that value is allowed to pass through it.
3. In the reverse bias direction, there is practically no reverse current flow until the
breakdown voltage is reached. When this occurs there is a sharp increase in reverse
current. Varying amount of reverse current can pass through the diode without damaging
it. The breakdown voltage or zener voltage (VZ) across the diode remains relatively
constant.
Zener Diode As A Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable DC voltage independent of the
load current, temperature and AC line voltage variations. A Zener diode of break down voltage
VZ is reverse connected to an input voltage source VI across a load resistance RL and a series
resistor RS. The voltage across the zener will remain steady at its break down voltage VZ for all
the values of zener current IZ as long as the current remains in the break down region. Hence a
regulated DC output voltage V0=VZ is obtained across RL, whenever the input voltage remains
within a minimum and maximum voltage. Basically there are two type of regulations such
as: Line Regulation: In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed,
only input voltage is changing. Output voltage remains the same as long as the input voltage is
maintained above a minimum value. Load Regulation: In this type of regulation, input voltage
is fixed and the load resistance is varying. Output volt remains same, as long as the load
resistance is maintained above a minimum value.

Line Regulation

In Line Regulation, Load resistance is constant and input voltage varies. VI must be sufficiently
large to turn the Zener Diode ON.

𝑉𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 × 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑍 =
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿
So, the minimum turn-on voltage VImin is:
𝑉𝑍 × (𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑉𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅𝐿
The maximum value of VI is limited by the maximum zener current IZmax

𝐼𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐼𝐿
 𝑉𝑍
IL is fixed at: 𝑅𝐿

Since, VL=VZ so maximum VI is 𝑉𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑍 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 𝑅 + 𝑉𝑍

For VI < VZ the output voltage is 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝐼 and For VI > VZ the output voltage is 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝐼 −
(𝐼𝑠 × 𝑅𝑆 ).

Load Rotation

In Load Regulation, input voltage is constant and Load resistance varies. Too small a Load
Resistance RL, will result in VTh < VZ and Zener Diode will be OFF.

𝑉𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 × 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑍 =
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿
So the minimum load resistance RL

𝑉𝑍 × 𝑅𝑠
𝑅𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉𝑍

Any load resistance greater than RLmin will make Zener Diode ON

𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑍

RLmin will establish maximum IL as

𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝑍
𝐼𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑍
𝑅𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛

VS is the voltage drop across RS

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑍
𝑉𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑍
𝐼𝑆 =
𝑅𝑆
For RL < RLmin , the output voltage is 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝐼
For RL > RLmin, the output voltage is 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝐼 − (𝐼𝑆 × 𝑅𝑆 )
Procedure

Zener Diode - Line Regulation

1. Set the Zener Voltage(VZ)

2. Set the Series Resistance (RS) value.
3. Set the Load Resistance (RL) value.
4. Vary DC voltage.
5. Voltmeter is placed parallel to load resistor and ammeter series with the series resistor.
6. Choose appropriate DC voltage such that zener diode is 'on'.
7. Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for various DC voltages.
8. Note the Load current(IL), zener current(IZ), Output voltage(VO)
9. Calculate the voltage regulation.

Zener Diode - Load Regulation

1. Set DC voltage.
2. Set the Series Resistance (RS) value.
3. 1W D0-41 Glass Zener Diode 1N4740A, Zener voltage is 10 V.
4. Vary the Load Resistance (RL).
5. Voltmeter is placed parallel to load resistor and ammeter series with the series resistor.
6. Choose Load Resistance in such a manner, such that the Zener diode is 'on'.
7. Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for various Load Resistance.
8. Increase the load resistance (RL).
9. Note the Load current (IL), zener current (IZ), Output voltage(VO)
 10. Calculate the voltage regulation.

Zener Characteristics

1. Select the diode

2. Set the rheostat Rh=1 Ω
3. By adjusting the rheostat, voltmeter reading is increased from 0 and in each time note the
corresponding reading in millimeter.
4. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Zener diode and Ammeter reading.
5. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
Simulation
Result: The break down voltage of Zener diode and line & load regulation of Zener diode is
calculated by using virtual lab simulator.

Signature of the student Signature of the Faculty